JEE Atoms & Nuclei Questions

Substance P (Parent): Initially starts at a maximum value ($$M_0$$) and undergoes continuous, pure exponential decay. Its mass decreases monotonically toward zero: $$M_P(t) = M_0 e^{-\lambda_1 t}$$
Substance Q (Intermediate): Initially starts at zero. As P decays, Q is continuously produced while simultaneously decaying into R.

At early times, its production rate from P is higher than its own decay rate, causing its mass to rise to a maximum peak. Eventually, as the supply of P depletes, its decay rate dominates, causing its mass to fall back asymptotically toward zero.

Substance R (Stable End-Product): Initially starts at zero. Because it is non-radioactive (stable), it never decays. It accumulates continuously over time, flattening out asymptotically into a maximum steady plateau ($$M_0$$) as all of P and Q are completely spent.

Option (B) shows it correctly.

Transition A→C corresponds to $$\lambda_1 = 2000$$ Å and B→C to $$\lambda_2 = 6000$$ Å. We denote the wavelength for A→B by $$\lambda_3$$. Since the energy of A→C equals the sum of energies of A→B and B→C, $$E_{A→C} = E_{A→B} + E_{B→C}$$. Expressing each energy as $$hc/\lambda$$ gives $$\frac{hc}{\lambda_1} = \frac{hc}{\lambda_3} + \frac{hc}{\lambda_2}$$. Substituting the given wavelengths yields $$\frac{1}{\lambda_3} = \frac{1}{\lambda_1} - \frac{1}{\lambda_2} = \frac{1}{2000} - \frac{1}{6000} = \frac{3-1}{6000} = \frac{1}{3000}$$.

This gives $$\lambda_3 = 3000$$ Å. Therefore the correct answer is $$3000$$ Å.

The nuclear radius empirical formula is $$R = r_0 A^{1/3}$$, where
$$R$$ = radius of the nucleus,
$$A$$ = mass number,
$$r_0$$ ≈ $$1.2 \times 10^{-15}\,$$m (a constant).

Hence the nuclear volume is
$$V = \frac{4}{3}\pi R^{3} = \frac{4}{3}\pi\left(r_0 A^{1/3}\right)^{3} = \frac{4}{3}\pi r_0^{3} A$$.

The mass of a nucleus is roughly $$A m_n$$, where $$m_n$$ is the nucleon mass (proton/neutron mass).
Therefore nuclear density is

$$\rho = \frac{\text{mass}}{\text{volume}} = \frac{A m_n}{\frac{4}{3}\pi r_0^{3} A} = \frac{m_n}{\tfrac{4}{3}\pi r_0^{3}}$$.

The factor $$A$$ cancels out, so $$\rho$$ is the same constant for all nuclei, independent of their mass numbers.

Assertion (A): “The density of the copper $$\left(^{64}_{29}Cu\right)$$ nucleus is greater than that of the carbon $$\left(^{12}_{6}C\right)$$ nucleus.”
We just showed that densities are practically identical for all nuclei, so Assertion (A) is incorrect.

Reason (R): “The nucleus of mass number $$A$$ has a radius proportional to $$A^{1/3}$$.”
This is exactly the empirical formula stated above, so Reason (R) is correct.

Thus, Assertion (A) is not correct but Reason (R) is correct. The appropriate choice is Option B.

We need to find the ratio of de Broglie wavelengths of the electron in the third excited state (n=4) to the ground state (n=1) of hydrogen.

The de Broglie wavelength is related to the orbital parameters by the Bohr quantization condition:

$$n\lambda = 2\pi r_n$$

Therefore, the de Broglie wavelength is:

$$\lambda_n = \frac{2\pi r_n}{n}$$

For the ground state (n=1): $$r_1 = 5.3 \times 10^{-11}$$ m

$$\lambda_1 = \frac{2\pi \times 5.3 \times 10^{-11}}{1} = 2\pi \times 5.3 \times 10^{-11}$$

For the third excited state (n=4): $$r_4 = 8.48 \times 10^{-10}$$ m

$$\lambda_4 = \frac{2\pi \times 8.48 \times 10^{-10}}{4} = 2\pi \times 2.12 \times 10^{-10}$$

The ratio of wavelengths:

$$\frac{\lambda_4}{\lambda_1} = \frac{2.12 \times 10^{-10}}{5.3 \times 10^{-11}} = \frac{2.12}{0.53} = 4$$

The correct answer is Option 4: 4.

Electron with $$\vec{v}=v_0\hat{i}$$ enters field $$\vec{E}=-E_0\hat{k}$$. Find de Broglie wavelength after time $$t$$.

The force on the electron is $$\vec{F}=-e\vec{E}=eE_0\hat{k}$$.

Integrating acceleration gives $$v_z=\frac{eE_0}{m}t$$ while $$v_x=v_0$$ remains constant.

Hence the speed is $$v=\sqrt{v_0^2+\frac{e^2E_0^2t^2}{m^2}}$$.

The de Broglie wavelength is $$\lambda=\frac{h}{mv}=\frac{h}{m\sqrt{v_0^2+e^2E_0^2t^2/m^2}}$$.

This can be written as $$\lambda=\frac{h}{mv_0\sqrt{1+e^2E_0^2t^2/(m^2v_0^2)}}$$.

Therefore $$\lambda=\frac{\lambda_0}{\sqrt{1+\frac{e^2E_0^2t^2}{m^2v_0^2}}}$$.

We need to identify the correct nuclear process for beta-minus decay of a neutron.

Key Concept: Beta-minus ($$\beta^-$$) Decay

In beta-minus decay, a neutron inside a nucleus (or a free neutron) transforms into a proton by emitting an electron and an antineutrino:

$$n \rightarrow p + e^- + \bar{\nu}$$

Conservation Laws:

Charge conservation: Neutron (charge 0) $$\rightarrow$$ proton (charge +1) + electron (charge -1) + antineutrino (charge 0). Total: $$0 = +1 - 1 + 0$$ $$\checkmark$$

Lepton number conservation: Left side: lepton number = 0. Right side: electron (lepton number +1) + antineutrino (lepton number -1) = 0. $$\checkmark$$

Baryon number conservation: Left side: 1. Right side: 1 + 0 + 0 = 1. $$\checkmark$$

Why other options are wrong:

- Option 1: $$n \rightarrow p + e^+ + \bar{\nu}$$ -- The positron ($$e^+$$) has charge +1, giving total charge +2 on the right. Charge not conserved.

- Option 2: $$n \rightarrow p + e^+ + \nu$$ -- Same charge violation as above.

- Option 3: $$n \rightarrow p + e^- + \nu$$ -- Lepton number: right side = +1 + 1 = +2 $$\neq$$ 0. Lepton number not conserved.

The correct answer is Option 4: $$n \rightarrow p + e^- + \bar{\nu}$$.

Assertion A: The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogen and hydrogen-like atoms only. This is TRUE. The Bohr model works for systems with a single electron orbiting a nucleus (hydrogen, He$$^+$$, Li$$^{2+}$$, etc.).

Reason R: The formulation of the Bohr model does not include repulsive force between electrons. This is TRUE. Bohr's model considers only the attractive Coulomb force between the nucleus and a single electron. It does not account for electron-electron repulsion.

The reason R correctly explains the assertion A. The Bohr model is limited to hydrogen-like atoms precisely because it does not incorporate electron-electron repulsive interactions. For multi-electron atoms, the inter-electron repulsion makes the Bohr model inapplicable.

Hence, the correct answer is Option C.

The question gives four different proportionalities of energy with atomic number $$Z$$ (List-I) and asks us to match them with the physical phenomena listed in List-II. We discuss each proportionality one by one.

For a hydrogen-like (one-electron) ion with nuclear charge $$+Ze$$, the Bohr model gives the energy of the $$n^{\text{th}}$$ orbit as $$E_n = -\dfrac{13.6\ \text{eV}\; Z^{2}}{n^{2}}$$ Hence the energy difference between any two levels, and therefore the photon energy emitted during an electronic transition, is proportional to $$Z^{2}$$. This exactly matches List-II entry (5) “energy of radiation due to electronic transitions from hydrogen-like atoms”.

Therefore, $$P \to 5$$.

Moseley’s law for characteristic X-rays (for example, Kα, Kβ lines) is $$\nu = R\,c\,(Z-1)^{2}\left(\dfrac{1}{n_{1}^{2}}-\dfrac{1}{n_{2}^{2}}\right)$$ so the photon energy $$E = h\nu$$ also follows $$E \propto (Z-1)^{2}$$. The factor $$(Z-1)$$ accounts for the screening of one inner-shell electron.

Thus, $$Q \to 1$$ corresponding to “energy of characteristic X-rays”.

In the semi-empirical mass formula, the electrostatic (Coulomb) part of the nuclear binding energy is $$B_{C} = a_{c}\dfrac{Z (Z-1)}{A^{1/3}}$$ For medium-mass stable nuclei ($$30\le A\le170$$), $$A$$ is roughly proportional to $$Z$$, so apart from a slowly varying denominator, the numerator gives the leading dependence $$Z(Z-1)$$.

Hence, $$R \to 2$$ “electrostatic part of the nuclear binding energy for stable nuclei with mass numbers in the range 30 to 170”.

The average binding energy per nucleon for medium-mass stable nuclei (say $$30 \le A \le 170$$) is nearly constant at about $$8\ \text{MeV}$$ and shows only a very weak dependence on $$Z$$.

This matches List-II entry (4) “average nuclear binding energy per nucleon for stable nuclei with mass number in the range 30 to 170”. Therefore, $$S \to 4$$.

Collecting all the matches:

$$P \to 5,\; Q \to 1,\; R \to 2,\; S \to 4$$

This set of correspondences is given by Option C.

The number of spectral lines emitted when an electron transitions from energy level $$n$$ to all lower levels is given by:

$$ \text{Number of lines} = \frac{n(n-1)}{2} $$

For $$n = 4$$:

$$ \text{Number of lines} = \frac{4 \times 3}{2} = 6 $$

The possible transitions are: $$4 \to 3$$, $$4 \to 2$$, $$4 \to 1$$, $$3 \to 2$$, $$3 \to 1$$, $$2 \to 1$$.

The correct answer is Option 3: 6.

For a hydrogen-like ion (single electron around nucleus of charge $$+Ze$$), Bohr’s model gives the radius of the $$n^{\text{th}}$$ orbit as

$$r_n = \frac{n^2 a_0}{Z}$$

where
$$n$$ = principal quantum number,
$$Z$$ = atomic number of the nucleus,
$$a_0$$ = Bohr radius for the hydrogen ground state.

For $$Li^{2+}$$ the atomic number is $$Z = 3$$ because lithium has three protons. The ground state corresponds to $$n = 1$$.

Substituting $$n = 1$$ and $$Z = 3$$ into the formula,

$$r_1 = \frac{(1)^2 a_0}{3} = \frac{a_0}{3}$$

This can be written as $$\frac{1}{X} a_0$$ with $$X = 3$$.

Hence, $$X = 3$$, which matches Option C.

The energy released in a nuclear reaction equals the increase in total binding energy of the nuclei involved.
$$Q = \text{(total BE of products)} - \text{(total BE of reactants)}$$

Step 1: Binding energy of the reactants
Each deuteron $$_{1}H^{2}$$ contains $$A = 2$$ nucleons.
Given binding energy per nucleon = $$1.1$$ MeV.
Total binding energy of one deuteron = $$1.1 \times 2 = 2.2$$ MeV.
Since two deuterons take part, total BE of reactants = $$2 \times 2.2 = 4.4$$ MeV.

Step 2: Binding energy of the product
Helium-4 nucleus $$_{2}He^{4}$$ has $$A = 4$$ nucleons.
Given binding energy per nucleon = $$7.0$$ MeV.
Total binding energy of product = $$7.0 \times 4 = 28.0$$ MeV.

Step 3: Energy released
$$Q = 28.0 \text{ MeV} - 4.4 \text{ MeV} = 23.6 \text{ MeV}.$$

Therefore, the energy liberated when two deuterons fuse into a helium-4 nucleus is $$23.6$$ MeV.

Option C is correct.

First recognise the four classes given in LIST-II.

I Chemical reaction - involves only electrons, no change in nucleus, energy of the order of $$\text{kJ mol}^{-1}$$.

II Fusion with $$+$$ve Q value - two light nuclei combine, total mass decreases, energy is released ($$Q \gt 0$$).

III Fission - a heavy nucleus splits into two medium-mass nuclei and a few neutrons, energy is released ($$Q \gt 0$$).

IV Fusion with $$-$$ve Q value - two nuclei combine but the product mass is larger, energy is absorbed ($$Q \lt 0$$).

Case A: $$^{1}_{0}n + {}^{235}_{92}U \rightarrow {}^{140}_{54}Xe + {}^{94}_{38}Sr + 2\,^{1}_{0}n$$
A single heavy nucleus $$^{235}U$$ breaks into two medium nuclei plus neutrons. According to the definition, this is nuclear fission. Hence A → III.

Case B: $$2H_2 + O_2 \rightarrow 2H_2O$$
Only the electronic configuration of atoms changes; nuclei remain unchanged. This is an ordinary chemical reaction. Hence B → I.

Case C: $$^{2}_{1}H + {}^{2}_{1}H \rightarrow {}^{3}_{2}He + {}^{1}_{0}n$$
Two deuterons fuse to form a helium-3 nucleus and a neutron.
Mass of reactants: $$M_r = 2 \times 2.014102\,u = 4.028204\,u$$.
Mass of products: $$M_p = 3.016029\,u + 1.008665\,u = 4.024694\,u$$.
$$\Delta M = M_r - M_p = 0.003510\,u \gt 0$$, so $$Q = \Delta M c^2 \approx 3.27\ \text{MeV} \gt 0$$.
Energy is released; it is a fusion reaction with positive Q value. Hence C → II.

Case D: $$^{1}_{1}H + {}^{3}_{1}H \rightarrow {}^{2}_{1}H + {}^{2}_{1}H$$
Mass of reactants: $$1.007825\,u + 3.016049\,u = 4.023874\,u$$.
Mass of products: $$2 \times 2.014102\,u = 4.028204\,u$$.
$$\Delta M = M_r - M_p = -0.004330\,u \lt 0$$, so $$Q = \Delta M c^2 \approx -4.03\ \text{MeV} \lt 0$$.
Energy is absorbed; it is a fusion reaction with negative Q value. Hence D → IV.

Thus the correct matching is
A - III, B - I, C - II, D - IV.

The option representing this pattern is Option B.

Final Answer: Option B

Mass of $$CO_{2}$$ given is 50 g. Molar mass of $$CO_{2}$$ is $$12 + 2 \times 16 = 44\;\mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$$.

Number of moles, $$n = \frac{\text{mass}}{\text{molar mass}} = \frac{50}{44} = 1.13636\;\mathrm{mol}\,.$$

Temperature, $$T = 17^\circ\mathrm{C} = 17 + 273 = 290\;\mathrm{K}\,.$$

Formula: For an ideal gas, total translational kinetic energy is given by $$E_{\mathrm{trans}} = \frac{3}{2}\,n\,R\,T\,.$$

Substituting values into $$E_{\mathrm{trans}}$$: $$E_{\mathrm{trans}} = \frac{3}{2} \times 1.13636 \times 8.314\;\mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}K^{-1}} \times 290\;\mathrm{K}\quad-(1)$$

Compute step by step:
$$1.13636 \times 8.314 = 9.449\quad(\text{approx})$$
$$9.449 \times 290 = 2740.21\quad(\text{approx})$$
$$\frac{3}{2} \times 2740.21 = 4110.315\quad(\text{approx})$$

The result is $$\approx 4.11\times10^3\;\mathrm{J}$$. The closest given option is Option B: $$4102.8\;\mathrm{J}\,.$$

Answer: Option B, $$4102.8\;\mathrm{J}\,.$$

Since the decay constant of $$n_2$$ is three times that of $$n_1$$, $$\lambda_2 = 3\lambda_1$$, we use the radioactive decay law:

$$ N = N_0 e^{-\lambda t} $$

After one half-life of $$n_1$$ (that is, $$t = T_1 = \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda_1}$$), the remaining amount of $$n_1$$ is

$$ N_1 = N_0 e^{-\lambda_1 \cdot \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda_1}} = N_0 e^{-\ln 2} = \frac{N_0}{2} $$

At the same time, the amount of $$n_2$$ is

$$ N_2 = N_0 e^{-\lambda_2 \cdot \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda_1}} = N_0 e^{-3\lambda_1 \cdot \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda_1}} = N_0 e^{-3\ln 2} = N_0 \cdot 2^{-3} = \frac{N_0}{8} $$

Hence, the ratio of the two amounts is

$$ \frac{N_2}{N_1} = \frac{N_0/8}{N_0/2} = \frac{1}{4} $$

The correct answer is Option 4: 1/4.

The energy of an electron in a Bohr orbit of any hydrogen-like species (single-electron ion) is given by
$$E_n = -\dfrac{13.6\,\text{eV}\,Z^{2}}{n^{2}}$$
where $$Z$$ is the atomic number and $$n = 1,2,3,\ldots$$ is the principal quantum number.

For the hydrogen atom $$\left(Z = 1\right)$$ in its ground state $$\left(n = 1\right)$$:
$$E_{\text{H, ground}} = -\dfrac{13.6 \cdot 1^{2}}{1^{2}} = -13.6\ \text{eV}$$

He$$^{+}$$ ion has $$Z = 2$$.
First excited state means $$n = 2$$.
$$E_{\text{He}^{+},\,n=2} = -\dfrac{13.6 \cdot 2^{2}}{2^{2}} = -13.6\ \text{eV}$$
This equals the hydrogen ground-state energy, so statement (A) is correct.

Li$$^{++}$$ ion has $$Z = 3$$.
Second excited state means $$n = 3$$.
$$E_{\text{Li}^{++},\,n=3} = -\dfrac{13.6 \cdot 3^{2}}{3^{2}} = -13.6\ \text{eV}$$
Again equal to the hydrogen ground-state energy, so statement (B) is correct.

He$$^{+}$$ ground state: $$n = 1$$.
$$E_{\text{He}^{+},\,n=1} = -\dfrac{13.6 \cdot 2^{2}}{1^{2}} = -54.4\ \text{eV}$$
This is not equal to $$-13.6\ \text{eV}$$, so statement (C) is incorrect.

He$$^{+}$$ first excited state energy has already been found as $$-13.6\ \text{eV}$$.
Li$$^{++}$$ ground state: $$n = 1$$.
$$E_{\text{Li}^{++},\,n=1} = -\dfrac{13.6 \cdot 3^{2}}{1^{2}} = -122.4\ \text{eV}$$
These are not equal, so statement (D) is incorrect.

Only statements (A) and (B) are correct. Hence the correct option is Option B: (A), (B) only.

Evaluate the assertion and reason about nuclear binding energy.

Assertion (A): The binding energy per nucleon is practically independent of A for nuclei with mass numbers between 30 and 170.

This is TRUE. The BE/nucleon curve is roughly flat (~8.5 MeV) in this range.

Reason (R): Nuclear force is long range.

This is FALSE. Nuclear force is SHORT range (about 1-2 femtometers). In fact, the saturation of binding energy per nucleon is a consequence of the short-range nature of nuclear force - each nucleon interacts only with its nearest neighbors.

The correct answer is Option 1: (A) is true but (R) is false.

We need to identify the correct relativistic energy-momentum relation.

Einstein's Energy-Momentum Relation:

In special relativity, the total energy $$E$$ of a particle with rest mass $$m$$ and momentum $$p$$ is given by:

$$E^2 = (pc)^2 + (mc^2)^2 = p^2c^2 + m^2c^4$$

Derivation:

The relativistic energy is $$E = \gamma mc^2$$ and relativistic momentum is $$p = \gamma mv$$, where $$\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}$$.

$$E^2 - p^2c^2 = \gamma^2 m^2 c^4 - \gamma^2 m^2 v^2 c^2 = \gamma^2 m^2 c^2(c^2 - v^2) = m^2c^4$$

(since $$\gamma^2(c^2-v^2) = c^2$$)

Therefore: $$E^2 = p^2c^2 + m^2c^4$$.

The correct answer is Option 4: $$E^2 = p^2c^2 + m^2c^4$$.

The nucleus is assumed to be a uniform solid sphere.

Radius-mass number relation:
Experimental data give $$R = R_0\,A^{1/3}$$, where $$R_0 \approx 1.2 \times 10^{-15}\,\text{m}$$.

Volume of the nucleus:
$$V = \frac{4}{3}\pi R^{3}$$

Substitute $$R = R_0\,A^{1/3}$$:
$$V = \frac{4}{3}\pi \left(R_0\,A^{1/3}\right)^{3} = \frac{4}{3}\pi R_0^{3}\,A$$ $$-(1)$$

Mass of the nucleus:
Each nucleon (proton or neutron) has nearly the same mass $$m_N$$, so for mass number $$A$$ the nuclear mass is approximately
$$M \approx A\,m_N$$ $$-(2)$$

Nuclear mass density $$\rho$$ is defined as mass per unit volume:
$$\rho = \frac{M}{V}$$

Insert $$(1)$$ and $$(2)$$:
$$\rho = \frac{A\,m_N}{\dfrac{4}{3}\pi R_0^{3}\,A} = \frac{3\,m_N}{4\pi R_0^{3}}$$

The factor $$A$$ cancels out; therefore $$\rho$$ does not depend on the mass number $$A$$.

Hence, the nuclear mass density is independent of A.

Correct option: Option D.

A proton of mass $$m_p$$ has the same energy $$E$$ as a photon of wavelength $$\lambda$$, and we seek the ratio of the proton’s de Broglie wavelength to the photon’s wavelength.

To begin, we express the photon energy in terms of its wavelength. For a photon, $$E = \frac{hc}{\lambda}$$, which implies $$\lambda = \frac{hc}{E}$$.

Next, we determine the proton’s de Broglie wavelength by first relating its kinetic energy to its momentum. In the non-relativistic regime, the proton’s energy is $$E = \frac{p^2}{2m_p}$$, from which the momentum follows as

$$p = \sqrt{2m_p E}$$

and hence its de Broglie wavelength is

$$\lambda_p = \frac{h}{p} = \frac{h}{\sqrt{2m_p E}}$$

Combining these expressions to form the desired ratio gives

$$\frac{\lambda_p}{\lambda} = \frac{h/\sqrt{2m_p E}}{hc/E} = \frac{h}{\sqrt{2m_p E}} \cdot \frac{E}{hc} = \frac{E}{c\sqrt{2m_p E}} = \frac{\sqrt{E}}{c\sqrt{2m_p}} = \frac{1}{c}\sqrt{\frac{E}{2m_p}}$$

The correct answer is Option D) $$\frac{1}{c}\sqrt{\frac{E}{2m_p}}$$.

For a hydrogen-like ion, Bohr’s radius of the electron in the $$n^{\text{th}}$$ orbit is given by

$$r_n = \frac{n^{2}a_0}{Z}$$

where $$a_0$$ is the Bohr radius of the first orbit of the hydrogen atom and $$Z$$ is the atomic number of the nucleus.

Both $$Li^{2+}$$ and $$He^{+}$$ have a single electron, so the same formula applies.

Case 1: $$Li^{2+}$$
For lithium, $$Z_{Li}=3$$ and for the $$5^{\text{th}}$$ orbit, $$n=5$$.

$$r_{Li} = \frac{(5)^2\,a_0}{3}= \frac{25a_0}{3}$$

Case 2: $$He^{+}$$
For helium, $$Z_{He}=2$$ and again $$n=5$$.

$$r_{He} = \frac{(5)^2\,a_0}{2}= \frac{25a_0}{2}$$

Now compute the required ratio:

$$\frac{r_{Li}}{r_{He}} = \frac{\dfrac{25a_0}{3}}{\dfrac{25a_0}{2}} = \frac{2}{3}$$

Hence, the ratio of the radii is $$\dfrac{2}{3}$$.

Option D is correct.

The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is given by
$$E_n = -\frac{13.6\text{ eV}}{n^{2}}$$

“Fourth excited state’’ means the electron starts from the level
$$n_i = 5$$  (because $$n = 1$$ is ground, $$n = 2$$ first excited, …).

If the electron finally reaches an unknown level $$n_f$$ and emits a photon of energy $$E_{\gamma}=2.86\text{ eV}$$, then by energy conservation

$$E_{\gamma}=E_{n_i}-E_{n_f}$$

Substituting the formula for $$E_n$$ gives

$$2.86 = \left(-\frac{13.6}{5^{2}}\right) - \left(-\frac{13.6}{n_f^{2}}\right)$$

Simplify the brackets:

$$2.86 = 13.6\left(\frac{1}{n_f^{2}} - \frac{1}{25}\right)$$

Divide both sides by $$13.6$$ to isolate the bracketed term:

$$\frac{2.86}{13.6} = \frac{1}{n_f^{2}} - \frac{1}{25}$$

Calculate the numerical value:

$$\frac{2.86}{13.6} \approx 0.21$$

Add $$\frac{1}{25}=0.04$$ to both sides:

$$0.21 + 0.04 = \frac{1}{n_f^{2}}$$

$$\frac{1}{n_f^{2}} \approx 0.25$$

Taking reciprocal and square-root:

$$n_f^{2} \approx 4 \quad\Longrightarrow\quad n_f \approx 2$$

Since $$n_f$$ must be an integer quantum number, we take
$$n_f = 2$$.

Therefore, the electron drops to the second energy level. The required integer value of $$n$$ is 2.

We need to find the ratio of specific heats at constant volume for a monoatomic gas and a diatomic (rigid) gas.

For an ideal gas, the molar specific heat at constant volume is $$C_v = \frac{f}{2}R$$, where $$f$$ is the number of degrees of freedom and $$R$$ is the universal gas constant.

For a monoatomic gas, $$f = 3$$ (3 translational), so $$C_{v_1} = \frac{3}{2}R$$. For a diatomic gas (rigid, i.e., no vibrational modes), $$f = 5$$ (3 translational + 2 rotational), so $$C_{v_2} = \frac{5}{2}R$$.

Therefore, $$\frac{C_{v_1}}{C_{v_2}} = \frac{\frac{3}{2}R}{\frac{5}{2}R} = \frac{3}{5}$$.

The correct answer is Option (2): $$\frac{3}{5}$$.

Ground state energy of hydrogen: $$E_1 = -13.6$$ eV. Energy given = 10.2 eV.

Total energy = $$-13.6 + 10.2 = -3.4$$ eV = $$-\frac{13.6}{n^2}$$. So $$n^2 = 4$$, $$n = 2$$.

The electron goes to $$n = 2$$. Spectral lines from transitions: $$n=2 \to n=1$$.

Number of spectral lines = $$\frac{n(n-1)}{2} = \frac{2 \times 1}{2} = 1$$.

The correct answer is Option 4: 1.

A proton and electron have the same de Broglie wavelength. Find the ratio of their kinetic energies.

$$\lambda = \frac{h}{p} \implies p = \frac{h}{\lambda}$$

Since both have the same $$\lambda$$, they have the same momentum $$p$$.

$$KE = \frac{p^2}{2m}$$

Since $$p$$ is the same for both:

$$\frac{KE_p}{KE_e} = \frac{p^2/(2m_p)}{p^2/(2m_e)} = \frac{m_e}{m_p} = \frac{m_e}{1836 \, m_e} = \frac{1}{1836}$$

$$KE_p : KE_e = 1 : 1836$$.

The correct answer is Option (4): $$1 : 1836$$.

For a particle of mass $$m$$ and kinetic energy $$E$$, the de-Broglie wavelength is given by

$$\lambda = \frac{h}{p} = \frac{h}{\sqrt{2mE}} \quad -(1)$$
since the linear momentum $$p = \sqrt{2mE}$$ for non-relativistic speeds.

From $$(1)$$ we get the proportionality

$$\lambda \propto \frac{1}{\sqrt{m}} \quad -(2)$$
for particles that possess the same energy $$E$$.

Therefore, for equal energies, the particle with the smaller mass has the larger wavelength.

Masses of the given particles:

Electron mass $$m_e \approx 9.11 \times 10^{-31}\,\text{kg}$$
Proton mass $$m_p \approx 1.67 \times 10^{-27}\,\text{kg}$$
Alpha-particle mass $$m_\alpha \approx 4m_p \approx 6.68 \times 10^{-27}\,\text{kg}$$

Hence

$$m_e \lt m_p \lt m_\alpha$$

Using $$(2)$$, the corresponding de-Broglie wavelengths satisfy

$$\lambda_e \gt \lambda_p \gt \lambda_\alpha$$

Re-ordering to match the option format:

$$\lambda_\alpha \lt \lambda_p \lt \lambda_e$$

This matches Option A.

Therefore, the correct comparison is
Case : $$\lambda_\alpha \lt \lambda_p \lt \lambda_e$$, which is Option A.

Magnetic moment of electron in $$n$$th Bohr orbit: $$\mu_n = \frac{eL}{2m_e}$$ where $$L = n\hbar$$ is the angular momentum.

So $$\mu_n \propto n^1$$, meaning $$x = 1$$.

The correct answer is Option 2: 1.

We need to find the nuclear binding energy of the isotope $$^{12}_5 B$$ (Boron-12), given that $$M_o$$ is its mass, $$M_p$$ is the mass of a proton, and $$M_n$$ is the mass of a neutron.

The notation $$^{12}_5 B$$ tells us that the atomic number (Z) is 5, meaning there are 5 protons, and the mass number (A) is 12, indicating a total of 12 nucleons. Therefore, the number of neutrons is A - Z = 12 - 5 = 7 neutrons.

The mass defect ($$\Delta m$$) is the difference between the total mass of the individual nucleons (protons and neutrons) when separated and the actual mass of the nucleus. This "missing mass" has been converted into binding energy that holds the nucleus together, according to Einstein's mass-energy equivalence.

The total mass of individual nucleons is:

$$m_{nucleons} = 5M_p + 7M_n$$

The mass defect is:

$$\Delta m = m_{nucleons} - M_o = 5M_p + 7M_n - M_o$$

Note that $$\Delta m$$ is positive because the bound nucleus has less mass than the individual nucleons (energy has been released during binding).

Using Einstein's relation $$E = \Delta m \cdot C^2$$, the binding energy is:

$$\text{Binding Energy} = (5M_p + 7M_n - M_o)C^2$$

The correct answer is Option (2): $$(5M_p + 7M_n - M_o)C^2$$.

According to Bohr's atomic theory, the moment of momentum (which is the angular momentum) of an electron revolving in a stationary orbit is quantized. It must be an integral multiple of $$ \frac{h}{2\pi} $$.

The formula for the moment of momentum $$ L $$ is:

$$ L = \frac{nh}{2\pi} $$

Given that the electron is revolving in the 4th orbit:

$$ n = 4 $$

$$ L = \frac{4h}{2\pi} $$

$$ L = \frac{2h}{\pi} $$

Therefore, the moment of momentum of the electron in the 4th orbit of a hydrogen atom is $$ \frac{2h}{\pi} $$.

Binding energy = $$18 \times 10^8$$ J. Find the mass difference between nucleons and the nucleus.

$$E = \Delta m \cdot c^2$$

The binding energy represents the energy equivalent of the mass defect $$\Delta m$$.

$$\Delta m = \frac{E}{c^2} = \frac{18 \times 10^8}{(3 \times 10^8)^2} = \frac{18 \times 10^8}{9 \times 10^{16}} = 2 \times 10^{-8} \text{ kg}$$

$$1 \text{ kg} = 10^9 \; \mu\text{g}$$, so:

$$\Delta m = 2 \times 10^{-8} \times 10^9 = 20 \; \mu\text{g}$$

The correct answer is Option (2): 20 $$\mu$$g.

We are given the hypothetical fission reaction:

$$_{92}X^{236} \rightarrow \, _{56}Y^{141} + \, _{36}Z^{92} + 3R$$

We need to identify the emitted particle $$R$$.

Applying conservation of mass number (A), in any nuclear reaction the total mass number must be conserved (total on left = total on right). On the left side $$A = 236$$, and on the right side $$141 + 92 + 3A_R = 233 + 3A_R$$. Setting them equal gives $$236 = 233 + 3A_R$$, hence $$3A_R = 3$$ and $$A_R = 1$$, so each particle $$R$$ has mass number 1.

Applying conservation of atomic number (Z), the total charge (atomic number) must also be conserved. On the left side $$Z = 92$$, and on the right side $$56 + 36 + 3Z_R = 92 + 3Z_R$$. Equating these yields $$92 = 92 + 3Z_R$$, so $$3Z_R = 0$$ and $$Z_R = 0$$. Each particle $$R$$ therefore has atomic number 0 (no charge).

A particle with mass number $$A = 1$$ and atomic number $$Z = 0$$ is a neutron ($$^1_0 n$$). This makes physical sense, as neutron emission is very common in nuclear fission reactions. The emitted neutrons can go on to trigger further fission events, which is the basis of a nuclear chain reaction.

The correct answer is Option (2): Neutron.

In nuclear fission: $$M \rightarrow 3 \times \frac{M}{3}$$. Mass defect = $$\Delta M$$.

Energy released: $$E = \Delta M c^2$$.

This energy is shared as kinetic energy among three identical daughter nuclei: $$3 \times \frac{1}{2} \cdot \frac{M}{3} \cdot v^2 = \Delta M c^2$$.

$$\frac{M v^2}{2} = \Delta M c^2$$

$$v^2 = \frac{2\Delta M c^2}{M}$$

$$v = c\sqrt{\frac{2\Delta M}{M}}$$

The answer is Option (3): $$\boxed{c\sqrt{\frac{2\Delta M}{M}}}$$.

We need to find how the angular momentum of an electron in a hydrogen atom depends on the radius of its orbit, using the Bohr model.

In Bohr's model, the angular momentum of the electron in the $$n$$-th orbit is quantised: $$L = mvr = n\hbar = \frac{nh}{2\pi}$$, where $$n$$ is the principal quantum number ($$n = 1, 2, 3, \ldots$$), $$m$$ is the electron mass, $$v$$ is the orbital speed, and $$r$$ is the orbital radius. This tells us that $$L \propto n$$.

In the Bohr model, the radius of the $$n$$-th orbit for hydrogen is given by $$r_n = a_0 n^2$$, where $$a_0 = 0.529$$ Angstrom is the Bohr radius, which shows that $$r \propto n^2$$.

From $$r \propto n^2$$, we can write $$n \propto \sqrt{r}$$.

Since $$L \propto n$$ and $$n \propto \sqrt{r}$$, it follows that $$L \propto \sqrt{r}$$.

The correct answer is Option (2): $$\sqrt{r}$$.

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Using Einstein's mass-energy equivalence: $$E = mc^2$$.

Given: $$m = 1$$ g = $$10^{-3}$$ kg, $$c = 3 \times 10^8$$ m/s.

$$E = 10^{-3} \times (3 \times 10^8)^2 = 10^{-3} \times 9 \times 10^{16} = 9 \times 10^{13} \text{ J}$$

Converting to MeV: $$1$$ MeV = $$1.6 \times 10^{-13}$$ J.

$$E = \frac{9 \times 10^{13}}{1.6 \times 10^{-13}} = \frac{9}{1.6} \times 10^{26} = 5.625 \times 10^{26} \approx 5.6 \times 10^{26} \text{ MeV}$$

The correct answer is Option 2: $$5.6 \times 10^{26}$$ MeV.

Energy from fusion of 2 kg hydrogen:

The fusion reaction: $$4\,^1H + 2e^- \to \,^4_2He + 2\nu + 6\gamma + 26.7$$ MeV

This means 4 hydrogen atoms (combined mass $$\approx 4 \times 1 = 4$$ g/mol) produce 26.7 MeV per reaction.

Moles of H in 2 kg = $$\frac{2000}{1} = 2000$$ mol

Number of fusion reactions = $$\frac{2000}{4} = 500$$ mol

Total energy: $$E_H = 500 \times N_A \times 26.7$$ MeV

Energy from fission of 2 kg $$^{235}U$$:

Moles of $$^{235}U$$ = $$\frac{2000}{235}$$ mol

Total energy: $$E_U = \frac{2000}{235} \times N_A \times 200$$ MeV

Ratio:

$$\frac{E_H}{E_U} = \frac{500 \times 26.7}{\frac{2000}{235} \times 200} = \frac{13350}{\frac{400000}{235}} = \frac{13350 \times 235}{400000} = \frac{3137250}{400000} \approx 7.84$$

The closest option is 7.62. The slight difference comes from the exact atomic masses used.

The correct answer is Option A: 7.62.

We need to find the longest wavelength associated with the Paschen series of hydrogen. The wavelengths of spectral lines in the hydrogen spectrum are given by the Rydberg formula: $$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R_H\left(\frac{1}{n_1^2} - \frac{1}{n_2^2}\right)$$ where $$R_H = 1.097 \times 10^7 \,\text{m}^{-1}$$ is the Rydberg constant, $$n_1$$ is the lower energy level, and $$n_2$$ is the upper energy level.

For the Paschen series, transitions end at $$n_1 = 3$$, and the lines correspond to $$n_2 = 4, 5, 6, \ldots$$ The longest wavelength corresponds to the smallest energy transition, which is the transition from $$n_2 = 4$$ to $$n_1 = 3$$. Thus,

$$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R_H\left(\frac{1}{3^2} - \frac{1}{4^2}\right) = R_H\left(\frac{1}{9} - \frac{1}{16}\right)$$

Computing the difference of fractions gives

$$\frac{1}{9} - \frac{1}{16} = \frac{16 - 9}{144} = \frac{7}{144}$$

Substituting back into the Rydberg formula,

$$\frac{1}{\lambda} = 1.097 \times 10^7 \times \frac{7}{144} = \frac{7.679 \times 10^7}{144} = \frac{7.679}{144} \times 10^7$$

$$\frac{1}{\lambda} = 0.05333 \times 10^7 = 5.333 \times 10^5 \,\text{m}^{-1}$$

Solving for $$\lambda$$ yields

$$\lambda = \frac{144}{7 \times 1.097 \times 10^7} = \frac{144}{7.679 \times 10^7} = 18.752 \times 10^{-7} \,\text{m} = 1.875 \times 10^{-6} \,\text{m}$$

Rounding gives $$1.876 \times 10^{-6}$$ m, so the correct answer is Option B: $$1.876 \times 10^{-6}$$ m.

We need to find the mass number of a nucleus whose radius is half that of a nucleus with mass number 192.

Nuclear Radius Formula:

$$R = R_0 A^{1/3}$$

where $$R_0 \approx 1.2$$ fm is a constant and $$A$$ is the mass number.

Setting up the equation:

$$R_2 = \frac{R_1}{2}$$, so $$R_0 A_2^{1/3} = \frac{R_0 A_1^{1/3}}{2}$$.

$$A_2^{1/3} = \frac{A_1^{1/3}}{2}$$

Cubing both sides:

$$A_2 = \frac{A_1}{8} = \frac{192}{8} = 24$$

The correct answer is Option 1: 24.

For Balmer series, the minimum energy transition is n=3 to n=2: E = 13.6(1/4-1/9) = 1.89 eV.

But to emit in Balmer series, atom must first reach n≥3 from ground state n=1: E = 13.6(1-1/9) = 12.09 ≈ 12.1 eV.

The correct answer is Option 4: 12.1 eV.

We need to find the ratio of the shortest wavelength of the Balmer series to the shortest wavelength of the Lyman series for hydrogen.

Recall the Rydberg formula:

$$ \frac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\frac{1}{n_1^2} - \frac{1}{n_2^2}\right) $$

For the Balmer series with $$n_1 = 2$$, the shortest wavelength (highest energy) occurs as $$n_2 \to \infty$$. Thus:

$$ \frac{1}{\lambda_B} = R\left(\frac{1}{4} - 0\right) = \frac{R}{4} \implies \lambda_B = \frac{4}{R} $$

For the Lyman series with $$n_1 = 1$$, the shortest wavelength occurs as $$n_2 \to \infty$$. Hence:

$$ \frac{1}{\lambda_L} = R\left(1 - 0\right) = R \implies \lambda_L = \frac{1}{R} $$

Therefore the ratio is given by:

$$ \frac{\lambda_B}{\lambda_L} = \frac{4/R}{1/R} = \frac{4}{1} = 4:1 $$

The correct answer is Option (1): 4:1.

For an electron orbiting a nucleus with charge $$Ze$$:

The potential energy of the electron is given by $$U = -\frac{kZe^2}{r}$$.

Using the centripetal force condition $$\frac{mv^2}{r} = \frac{kZe^2}{r^2}$$, we find the kinetic energy as

$$ KE = \frac{1}{2}mv^2 = \frac{kZe^2}{2r} = -\frac{U}{2} $$

Hence the total energy is

$$ E = KE + U = -\frac{U}{2} + U = \frac{U}{2} $$

It follows that

$$ 2E = U $$

The correct answer is Option (2): \boxed{2E = U}.

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Lyman series: $$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R(1 - 1/n^2)$$.

First member (n=2): $$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R(1-1/4) = \frac{3R}{4}$$.

Second member (n=3): $$\frac{1}{\lambda_2} = R(1-1/9) = \frac{8R}{9}$$.

$$\frac{\lambda_2}{\lambda} = \frac{3R/4}{8R/9} = \frac{27}{32}$$.

$$\lambda_2 = \frac{27}{32}\lambda$$.

The answer is Option (1): $$\frac{27}{32}\lambda$$.

We need to find the total energy released in the hydrogen bomb chain reaction.

Reaction 1: $$_3Li^6 + _0n^1 \rightarrow \, _2He^4 + \, _1H^3$$

Reaction 2: $$_1H^2 + \, _1H^3 \rightarrow \, _2He^4 + \, _0n^1$$

Adding both reactions (the $$_1H^3$$ and $$_0n^1$$ cancel as they appear on opposite sides):

$$_3Li^6 + \, _1H^2 \rightarrow 2 \, _2He^4$$

Mass of reactants:

$$m_{reactants} = M(Li^6) + M(H^2) = 6.01690 + 2.01471 = 8.03161 \text{ amu}$$

Mass of products:

$$m_{products} = 2 \times M(He^4) = 2 \times 4.00388 = 8.00776 \text{ amu}$$

Mass defect:

$$\Delta m = m_{reactants} - m_{products} = 8.03161 - 8.00776 = 0.02385 \text{ amu}$$

Using the conversion factor $$1 \text{ amu} = 931.5$$ MeV:

$$E = \Delta m \times 931.5 = 0.02385 \times 931.5 = 22.22 \text{ MeV}$$

The correct answer is Option (4): 22.22 MeV.

For a hydrogen atom, the energies of an electron in the $$n$$-th state are related by the virial theorem:

$$\text{Kinetic Energy (KE)} = -E_n$$

$$\text{Potential Energy (PE)} = 2E_n$$

$$\text{Total Energy} = E_n$$

where $$E_n$$ is the total energy of the electron in the $$n$$-th state (which is negative).

The ratio of the magnitude of kinetic energy to the magnitude of potential energy is:

$$\frac{|KE|}{|PE|} = \frac{|-E_n|}{|2E_n|} = \frac{|E_n|}{2|E_n|} = \frac{1}{2}$$

This ratio is independent of the quantum number $$n$$ and holds for any state, including the 5th excited state ($$n = 6$$).

The correct answer is $$\frac{1}{2}$$.

We need to identify the correct nuclear fission products when a neutron hits uranium-235.

Write the nuclear reaction.

$$ {}^{235}_{92}U + {}^{1}_{0}n \rightarrow \text{products} $$

Apply conservation laws.

Total mass number on the left: $$235 + 1 = 236$$

Total atomic number on the left: $$92 + 0 = 92$$

The products must conserve both mass number and atomic number.

Check each option.

Option 1: $${}^{144}_{56}Ba + {}^{89}_{36}Kr + 4{}^{1}_{0}n$$

Mass: $$144 + 89 + 4 = 237 \neq 236$$. Rejected.

Option 2: $${}^{144}_{56}Ba + {}^{89}_{36}Kr + 3{}^{1}_{0}n$$

Mass: $$144 + 89 + 3 = 236$$ $$\checkmark$$

Atomic number: $$56 + 36 + 0 = 92$$ $$\checkmark$$

Both conservation laws are satisfied. Correct.

Option 3: $${}^{140}_{56}Xe + {}^{94}_{38}Sr + 3{}^{1}_{0}n$$

Atomic number: $$56 + 38 + 0 = 94 \neq 92$$. Rejected.

Option 4: $${}^{153}_{51}Sb + {}^{99}_{41}Nb + 3{}^{1}_{0}n$$

Mass: $$153 + 99 + 3 = 255 \neq 236$$. Rejected.

The correct answer is Option (2): $${}^{144}_{56}Ba + {}^{89}_{36}Kr + 3{}^{1}_{0}n$$.

A hydrogen atom transitions from $$n = 3$$ to $$n = 2$$. We need to find $$n$$ in the expression $$1 \times 10^{-n}$$ for the percentage change in wavelength due to recoil.

Find the energy of the emitted photon.

$$ E = 13.6\left(\frac{1}{2^2} - \frac{1}{3^2}\right) = 13.6\left(\frac{1}{4} - \frac{1}{9}\right) = 13.6 \times \frac{5}{36} = 1.889 \text{ eV} $$

Find the photon momentum.

$$ p_{photon} = \frac{E}{c} = \frac{1.889 \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19}}{3 \times 10^8} = \frac{3.022 \times 10^{-19}}{3 \times 10^8} = 1.007 \times 10^{-27} \text{ kg m/s} $$

Find the recoil kinetic energy of the atom.

By conservation of momentum, the atom recoils with momentum equal to the photon's momentum:

$$ KE_{recoil} = \frac{p^2}{2M} = \frac{(1.007 \times 10^{-27})^2}{2 \times 1.6 \times 10^{-27}} = \frac{1.014 \times 10^{-54}}{3.2 \times 10^{-27}} \approx 3.17 \times 10^{-28} \text{ J} $$

Converting to eV: $$KE_{recoil} = \frac{3.17 \times 10^{-28}}{1.6 \times 10^{-19}} \approx 1.98 \times 10^{-9}$$ eV

Find the percentage change in wavelength.

Due to recoil, the actual photon energy is reduced by $$KE_{recoil}$$. Since $$E = hc/\lambda$$, a small change in energy gives:

$$ \frac{\Delta \lambda}{\lambda} = \frac{\Delta E}{E} = \frac{1.98 \times 10^{-9}}{1.889} \approx 1.05 \times 10^{-9} $$

Percentage change: $$\approx 1.05 \times 10^{-7}\%$$, which is $$\approx 10^{-7}\%$$.

Therefore $$n = \boxed{7}$$.

We need to find the ratio of volumes $$V_2/V_1$$ of two nuclei with mass numbers $$A_1$$ and $$A_2 = 4A_1$$.

The radius of a nucleus is given by the empirical relation $$R = R_0 \, A^{1/3}$$, where $$R_0 \approx 1.2 \, \text{fm}$$ is a constant and $$A$$ is the mass number. Since the nucleus is approximately spherical, its volume is $$V = \frac{4}{3}\pi R^3 = \frac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3 \, A$$, which shows that the nuclear volume is directly proportional to the mass number: $$V \propto A$$.

Thus the volumes of the two nuclei can be expressed as $$V_1 = \frac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3 \, A_1$$ and $$V_2 = \frac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3 \, A_2$$. Taking the ratio gives $$\frac{V_2}{V_1} = \frac{A_2}{A_1}$$, and substituting $$A_2 = 4A_1$$ leads to $$\frac{V_2}{V_1} = \frac{4A_1}{A_1} = 4$$.

The answer is 4.

A hydrogen-like ion emits frequency $$3 \times 10^{15}$$ Hz for $$n=2 \to n=1$$. Find the frequency for $$n=3 \to n=1$$.

$$ \nu = RZ^2\left(\frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2}\right) $$

where $$R$$ is the Rydberg constant (in frequency units), $$Z$$ is the atomic number.

For $$n=2 \to n=1$$:

$$ 3 \times 10^{15} = RZ^2\left(\frac{1}{1^2} - \frac{1}{2^2}\right) = RZ^2\left(1 - \frac{1}{4}\right) = RZ^2 \times \frac{3}{4} $$

$$ RZ^2 = \frac{3 \times 10^{15} \times 4}{3} = 4 \times 10^{15} $$

$$ \nu' = RZ^2\left(\frac{1}{1^2} - \frac{1}{3^2}\right) = 4 \times 10^{15} \times \left(1 - \frac{1}{9}\right) = 4 \times 10^{15} \times \frac{8}{9} = \frac{32}{9} \times 10^{15} $$

Comparing with the form $$\frac{x}{9} \times 10^{15}$$: $$x = 32$$.

The answer is 32.

Triple alpha process: $$3 \times {}^4\text{He} \to {}^{12}\text{C} + Q$$

Mass defect = $$3 \times 4.0026 - 12 = 12.0078 - 12 = 0.0078$$ u.

Energy released per reaction: $$Q = 0.0078 \times 931.5$$ MeV = $$7.2657$$ MeV = $$7.2657 \times 1.6 \times 10^{-13}$$ J = $$1.1625 \times 10^{-12}$$ J.

Rate of energy generation = $$5.808 \times 10^{30}$$ W.

Number of reactions per second = $$\frac{5.808 \times 10^{30}}{1.1625 \times 10^{-12}} = 4.997 \times 10^{42} \approx 5 \times 10^{42}$$ s$$^{-1}$$.

Each reaction converts 3 He atoms to 1 C atom. Rate of conversion of He = $$3 \times 5 \times 10^{42} = 15 \times 10^{42}$$ s$$^{-1}$$.

So $$n = 15$$.

The answer is $$\boxed{15}$$.

The energy of an electron in the $$n$$-th level of a hydrogen atom is given by $$E_n = -\frac{13.6}{n^2} \text{ eV}$$. When $$E_n = -0.85 \text{ eV}$$, we have $$-0.85 = -\frac{13.6}{n^2}$$ which leads to $$n^2 = \frac{13.6}{0.85} = 16$$ and hence $$n = 4$$, so the electron occupies the $$n = 4$$ state.

From $$n = 4$$, the electron can transition to any lower energy level $$n = 3, 2, 1$$. The maximum number of allowed transitions (spectral lines) is $$\binom{n}{2} = \binom{4}{2} = \frac{4!}{2! \times 2!} = 6$$, corresponding to the transitions $$4 \to 3$$, $$4 \to 2$$, $$4 \to 1$$, $$3 \to 2$$, $$3 \to 1$$, and $$2 \to 1$$. Therefore, the maximum number of allowed transitions is $$6$$.

To observe Balmer series lines in the emission spectrum, the hydrogen atom must be excited to at least the $$n = 3$$ level, since Balmer series corresponds to transitions ending at $$n = 2$$ and the minimum transition is $$n = 3 \rightarrow n = 2$$.

The energy of the $$n$$th level of hydrogen is given by $$E_n = -\frac{13.6}{n^2} \text{ eV}$$. Therefore, the energy required to excite the hydrogen atom from $$n = 1$$ to $$n = 3$$ is calculated as $$\Delta E = E_3 - E_1 = -\frac{13.6}{9} - \left(-\frac{13.6}{1}\right) = 13.6\left(1 - \frac{1}{9}\right) = 13.6 \times \frac{8}{9} = \frac{108.8}{9} = 12.09 \text{ eV}.$$

At $$T = 0\text{ K}$$, all hydrogen atoms are in the ground state ($$n = 1$$). The electrons must be accelerated through a potential difference $$V$$ so that they gain at least $$12.09\text{ eV}$$ of kinetic energy. Since $$eV = 12.09\text{ eV}$$, it follows that $$V = 12.09\text{ V} \approx 12.1\text{ V}.$$

This potential difference is expressed as $$\frac{\alpha}{10}\text{ V}$$, so $$\frac{\alpha}{10} = 12.1 \quad\Rightarrow\quad \alpha = 121.$$

Hence, $$\alpha = 121$$.

The Paschen series corresponds to transitions to $$n = 3$$. The longest wavelength corresponds to the smallest energy transition: $$n = 4 \to n = 3$$.

$$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\frac{1}{3^2} - \frac{1}{4^2}\right) = R\left(\frac{1}{9} - \frac{1}{16}\right) = R\left(\frac{16 - 9}{144}\right) = \frac{7R}{144}$$

$$\lambda = \frac{144}{7R}$$

So $$\alpha = 144$$.

The answer is $$\boxed{144}$$.

Three helium nuclei combine to form carbon: $$3 \, ^4_2He \rightarrow \, ^{12}_6C$$

We calculate the mass defect as follows:

Using this mass defect, the energy released is:

Therefore, the final answer is 727.

In nuclear fission:

- Parent nucleus: $$A = 236$$, binding energy per nucleon = 7.6 MeV

- Two daughter nuclei: each $$A = 118$$, binding energy per nucleon = 8.6 MeV

Total binding energy before = $$236 \times 7.6 = 1793.6$$ MeV

Total binding energy after = $$2 \times 118 \times 8.6 = 236 \times 8.6 = 2029.6$$ MeV

Energy released = Final BE - Initial BE = $$2029.6 - 1793.6 = 236$$ MeV

The answer is $$\boxed{236}$$ MeV.

We need to find the maximum velocity of an alpha particle in a scattering experiment.

At the distance of closest approach, all kinetic energy is converted to electrostatic potential energy:

$$\frac{1}{2}mv^2 = \frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0}\frac{(2e)(Ze)}{d}$$

$$Z = 80$$, $$d = 4.5 \times 10^{-14}$$ m, $$m = 6.72 \times 10^{-27}$$ kg, $$e = 1.6 \times 10^{-19}$$ C, $$\frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0} = 9 \times 10^9$$.

$$\frac{1}{2}mv^2 = \frac{9 \times 10^9 \times 2 \times 80 \times (1.6 \times 10^{-19})^2}{4.5 \times 10^{-14}}$$

$$9 \times 10^9 \times 160 \times 2.56 \times 10^{-38} = 9 \times 160 \times 2.56 \times 10^{-29}$$

$$= 9 \times 409.6 \times 10^{-29} = 3686.4 \times 10^{-29} = 3.6864 \times 10^{-26}$$

$$\frac{1}{2}mv^2 = \frac{3.6864 \times 10^{-26}}{4.5 \times 10^{-14}} = 8.192 \times 10^{-13}$$ J

$$v^2 = \frac{2 \times 8.192 \times 10^{-13}}{6.72 \times 10^{-27}} = \frac{16.384 \times 10^{-13}}{6.72 \times 10^{-27}} = 2.438 \times 10^{14}$$

$$v = \sqrt{2.438 \times 10^{14}} \approx 1.56 \times 10^7 \text{ m/s} = 156 \times 10^5$$ m/s

The maximum velocity is approximately $$156 \times 10^5$$ m/s.

Therefore, the answer is 156.

We need to find the wavelength of light emitted when hydrogen is excited to the first excitation level (10.2 eV).

In the Franck-Hertz experiment, the first dip at 10.2 V corresponds to the energy required to excite hydrogen from the ground state $$n = 1$$ to the first excited state $$n = 2$$, and when the atom de-excites back to $$n = 1$$, it emits a photon with energy equal to 10.2 eV.

The energy-wavelength relationship for a photon is given by

$$E = \frac{hc}{\lambda} \implies \lambda = \frac{hc}{E}$$

First, the energy of the emitted photon is $$E = 10.2 \, \text{eV}$$.

Next, using the value $$hc = 1245 \, \text{eV·nm}$$, we find

$$\lambda = \frac{1245}{10.2} = 122.06 \approx 122 \, \text{nm}$$

This corresponds to the Lyman-alpha line of hydrogen (the $$n = 2 \to n = 1$$ transition), which lies in the ultraviolet region.

The correct answer is 122 nm.

$$r_n = n^2 a_0$$. Given $$r = 8.48$$ Å: $$n^2 = 8.48/0.529 = 16 \Rightarrow n = 4$$.

$$E_n = E/n^2 = E/16$$. So $$x = 16$$.

The answer is 16.

Find the disintegration energy $$Q$$ for $$^{235}U \rightarrow ^{140}Ce + ^{94}Zr + n$$.

$$Q = (\text{mass of reactants} - \text{mass of products}) \times c^2$$

In atomic mass units with $$c^2 = 931$$ MeV/u:

$$Q = (M_U - M_{Ce} - M_{Zr} - M_n) \times 931 \text{ MeV}$$

$$Q = (235.0439 - 139.9054 - 93.9063 - 1.0086) \times 931$$

$$\Delta m = 235.0439 - 139.9054 - 93.9063 - 1.0086$$

$$= 235.0439 - 234.8203 = 0.2236 \text{ u}$$

$$Q = 0.2236 \times 931 = 208.17 \approx 208 \text{ MeV}$$

The correct answer is 208 MeV.

$$E = \Delta m \cdot c^2 = 0.4 \times 10^{-3} \times (3 \times 10^8)^2 = 0.4 \times 10^{-3} \times 9 \times 10^{16} = 3.6 \times 10^{13}$$ J.

Converting to kWh: $$\frac{3.6 \times 10^{13}}{3.6 \times 10^6} = 10^7$$ kWh = $$1 \times 10^7$$ kWh.

So $$n = 1$$.

The answer is $$\boxed{1}$$.

Radius of nucleus with $$A_1 = 64$$ is $$R_1 = 4.8$$ fermi. Another nucleus has $$R_2 = 4$$ fermi. Find $$x$$ where $$A_2 = 1000/x$$.

The radius of a nucleus is proportional to the cube root of its mass number:

$$ R = R_0 A^{1/3} $$

where $$R_0 \approx 1.2$$ fermi. This relationship exists because nucleons are approximately incompressible, so nuclear volume is proportional to the number of nucleons: $$V \propto A$$, and since $$V = \frac{4}{3}\pi R^3$$, we get $$R \propto A^{1/3}$$.

Taking the ratio of the two radii gives

$$ \frac{R_1}{R_2} = \left(\frac{A_1}{A_2}\right)^{1/3} $$

Substituting the values yields

$$ \frac{4.8}{4} = \left(\frac{64}{A_2}\right)^{1/3}, $$

so

$$ 1.2 = \left(\frac{64}{A_2}\right)^{1/3}. $$

Upon cubing both sides,

$$ (1.2)^3 = \frac{64}{A_2}. $$

Since $$1.2^3 = 1.2 \times 1.2 \times 1.2 = 1.44 \times 1.2 = 1.728$$, it follows that

$$ A_2 = \frac{64}{1.728}. $$

Noting that $$1.728 = \frac{1728}{1000}$$ and $$1728 = 12^3$$ while $$64 = 4^3$$, we find

$$ A_2 = \frac{64 \times 1000}{1728} = \frac{64000}{1728} = \frac{1000}{27} $$

(since $$64000/1728 = 64/1.728 = 1000/27$$).

Since $$A_2 = \frac{1000}{x}$$, this gives $$x = 27$$.

The answer is 27.

We are given that the shortest wavelength of the Lyman series is 915 Angstrom, and we need to find the longest wavelength of the Balmer series.

Recall the Rydberg formula for hydrogen spectral lines

The wavelength of spectral lines in hydrogen is given by:

$$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\frac{1}{n_1^2} - \frac{1}{n_2^2}\right)$$

where $$R$$ is the Rydberg constant, $$n_1$$ is the lower energy level, and $$n_2$$ is the upper energy level.

Find the Rydberg constant from the Lyman series data

The Lyman series corresponds to transitions where $$n_1 = 1$$. The shortest wavelength (series limit) occurs when $$n_2 \to \infty$$:

$$\frac{1}{\lambda_{\infty}} = R\left(\frac{1}{1^2} - \frac{1}{\infty}\right) = R$$

Given $$\lambda_{\infty} = 915$$ Angstrom:

$$R = \frac{1}{915} \text{ per Angstrom}$$

Calculate the longest wavelength of the Balmer series

The Balmer series corresponds to transitions where $$n_1 = 2$$. The longest wavelength (smallest energy transition) occurs when $$n_2 = 3$$ (the closest upper level):

$$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\frac{1}{2^2} - \frac{1}{3^2}\right) = R\left(\frac{1}{4} - \frac{1}{9}\right)$$

Finding the common denominator:

$$\frac{1}{4} - \frac{1}{9} = \frac{9 - 4}{36} = \frac{5}{36}$$

Therefore:

$$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R \times \frac{5}{36} = \frac{1}{915} \times \frac{5}{36}$$

$$\lambda = \frac{36}{5R} = \frac{36 \times 915}{5} = \frac{32940}{5} = 6588 \text{ Angstrom}$$

The answer is 6588 Angstrom.

Energy of photon (n=2→n=1): $$E = 13.6(1-1/4) = 10.2$$ eV $$= 10.2 \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19}$$ J.

Momentum: $$p = E/c = 10.2 \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19}/(3 \times 10^8) = 5.44 \times 10^{-27}$$ kg⋅m/s.

Recoil speed = $$p/m = 5.44 \times 10^{-27}/(1.6 \times 10^{-27}) = 3.4$$ m/s = $$17/5$$. $$x = 17$$.

The answer is $$\boxed{17}$$.

For any one-electron (hydrogen-like) species, Bohr’s model gives the total energy in the $$n^{\text{th}}$$ orbit as
$$E_n = -\frac{13.6\,\text{eV}\;Z^{2}}{n^{2}}$$
where $$Z$$ is the atomic (nuclear) charge.

The kinetic energy in that orbit is related to the total energy by
$$KE_n = -E_n$$
(because in Bohr’s model $$E_n = KE_n + PE_n$$ with $$PE_n = -2\,KE_n$$).

Hence
$$KE_n = \frac{13.6\,\text{eV}\;Z^{2}}{n^{2}} \quad -(1)$$
so $$KE_n$$ is directly proportional to $$\dfrac{Z^{2}}{n^{2}}$$.

Now evaluate $$\dfrac{Z^{2}}{n^{2}}$$ for each option:

Option A: $$H$$ atom  ($$Z = 1,\; n = 1$$)
$$\dfrac{Z^{2}}{n^{2}} = \dfrac{1^{2}}{1^{2}} = 1$$

Option B: $$He^{+}$$  ($$Z = 2,\; n = 1$$)
$$\dfrac{Z^{2}}{n^{2}} = \dfrac{2^{2}}{1^{2}} = 4$$

Option C: $$He^{+}$$  ($$Z = 2,\; n = 2$$)
$$\dfrac{Z^{2}}{n^{2}} = \dfrac{2^{2}}{2^{2}} = 1$$

Option D: $$Li^{2+}$$  ($$Z = 3,\; n = 2$$)
$$\dfrac{Z^{2}}{n^{2}} = \dfrac{3^{2}}{2^{2}} = \dfrac{9}{4} = 2.25$$

The largest value is $$4$$ for Option B, meaning the electron in the first orbit of $$He^{+}$$ possesses the highest kinetic energy.

Therefore, the correct choice is:
Option B which is: First orbit of $$He^{+}$$

Let the sample contain $$N_0$$ atoms of $$^{238}U$$ at the start (time $$t = 0$$).
After a time $$t$$, some of these nuclei have decayed to $$^{206}Pb$$ while the rest, $$N$$, are still $$^{238}U$$.

The radioactive decay law is
$$N = N_{0}\,e^{-\lambda t}$$
where $$\lambda$$ is the decay constant of $$^{238}U$$.

The number of $$^{206}Pb$$ atoms produced is the number of decayed $$^{238}U$$ atoms:
$$N_{Pb} = N_{0} - N = N_{0}\left(1 - e^{-\lambda t}\right)$$.

The ratio given in the statement is a ratio of MASSES, not of atom numbers.
If $$m_U$$ and $$m_{Pb}$$ are the masses of $$^{238}U$$ and $$^{206}Pb$$ present after time $$t$$, then

$$m_U = N \times 238 \ (\text{atomic mass units})$$
$$m_{Pb} = N_{Pb} \times 206$$.

We are told that
$$\frac{m_{Pb}}{m_U} = 7$$.

Inserting the expressions for the masses:
$$\frac{206\,(N_{0} - N)}{238\,N} = 7$$.

Simplify by cancelling $$N_0$$ (write $$N = N_0 e^{-\lambda t}$$):
$$\frac{206\left(1 - e^{-\lambda t}\right)}{238\,e^{-\lambda t}} = 7$$.

Bring the denominator to the right-hand side:
$$206\left(1 - e^{-\lambda t}\right) = 7 \times 238\,e^{-\lambda t}$$.

Divide both sides by 206:
$$1 - e^{-\lambda t} = 7\left(\frac{238}{206}\right)e^{-\lambda t} = 7\left(\frac{119}{103}\right)e^{-\lambda t}$$.

Calculate the numerical factor:
$$\frac{119}{103} \approx 1.15534 \quad\Rightarrow\quad 7 \times 1.15534 \approx 8.0874.$$

So
$$1 - e^{-\lambda t} = 8.0874\,e^{-\lambda t}.$$ Move the exponential term to one side:
$$1 = 9.0874\,e^{-\lambda t}.$$

Hence
$$e^{-\lambda t} = \frac{1}{9.0874} \approx 0.1100.$$

Take natural logarithm:
$$-\lambda t = \ln(0.1100) \approx -2.207.$$
Therefore
$$\lambda t = 2.207.$$

The decay constant is related to the half-life $$t_{1/2}$$ by $$\lambda = \dfrac{0.693}{t_{1/2}}$$.
Given $$t_{1/2} = 4.5 \times 10^{9}\,\text{years}$$, we have

$$\lambda = \frac{0.693}{4.5 \times 10^{9}} = 1.54 \times 10^{-10}\,\text{year}^{-1}.$$

Substitute into $$\lambda t = 2.207$$:
$$t = \frac{2.207}{\lambda} = \frac{2.207}{1.54 \times 10^{-10}} \text{ years}.$$

Compute:
$$t \approx 1.4329 \times 10^{10}\ \text{years}.$$

Express the age as $$P \times 10^{8}$$ years:
$$1.4329 \times 10^{10} = 143.29 \times 10^{8}.$$ Taking the nearest integer (since data are given to two-three significant figures), $$P = 143.$$

Final Answer: 143

A diatomic gas ($$\gamma=1.4$$) does 100 J of work in isobaric expansion. To find the heat given, recall that at constant pressure $$Q = nC_p\Delta T$$ and $$W = nR\Delta T$$.

$$\frac{Q}{W}=\frac{C_p}{R}=\frac{\gamma R/(\gamma-1)}{R}=\frac{\gamma}{\gamma-1}=\frac{1.4}{0.4}=\frac{7}{2}=3.5$$

Therefore, $$Q=3.5\times W=3.5\times100=350$$ J.

The correct answer is Option (3): 350 J.

For radioactive decay, the fraction of undecayed material after time $$t$$ is given by $$N/N_0 = \left(\dfrac{1}{2}\right)^{t/t_{1/2}}$$, where $$t_{1/2}$$ is the half-life. The type of decay (beta decay) does not affect this formula.

Here $$t = 90$$ min and $$t_{1/2} = 30$$ min, so the number of half-lives elapsed is $$n = 90/30 = 3$$. The fraction remaining is $$\left(\dfrac{1}{2}\right)^3 = \boxed{\dfrac{1}{8}}$$, which is option (A).

We need to find the total number of atoms of A and B combined after 2 days.

The number of atoms remaining after time $$t$$ is: $$N = N_0 \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{t/t_{1/2}}$$

For substance A:

Atomic mass number = 16, half-life = 1 day, initial mass = 320 g.

Initial atoms: $$N_{0A} = \frac{320}{16} \times 6.02 \times 10^{23} = 20 \times 6.02 \times 10^{23} = 1.204 \times 10^{25}$$

After 2 half-lives: $$N_A = 1.204 \times 10^{25} \times \frac{1}{4} = 3.01 \times 10^{24}$$

For substance B:

Atomic mass number = 32, half-life = 0.5 day, initial mass = 320 g.

Initial atoms: $$N_{0B} = \frac{320}{32} \times 6.02 \times 10^{23} = 10 \times 6.02 \times 10^{23} = 6.02 \times 10^{24}$$

After 4 half-lives: $$N_B = 6.02 \times 10^{24} \times \frac{1}{16} = 3.7625 \times 10^{23}$$

Total atoms remaining:

$$N_{total} = 3.01 \times 10^{24} + 0.376 \times 10^{24} = 3.386 \times 10^{24} \approx 3.38 \times 10^{24}$$

The correct answer is Option 1: $$3.38 \times 10^{24}$$.

After time $$t$$, remaining fraction = $$(1/2)^{t/T}$$. If 7/8 disintegrates, 1/8 remains.

$$(1/2)^{t/T} = 1/8 = (1/2)^3$$, so $$t/T = 3$$, $$t = 3T$$.

The correct answer is Option 2: 3T.

A free neutron is unstable and undergoes $$\beta^{-}$$-decay:$$n \rightarrow p^{+} + e^{-} + \bar\nu_e$$

For any decay to occur spontaneously, the total rest-mass (plus kinetic energy) of the products must be ≤ the rest-mass of the parent particle, otherwise the extra energy required cannot be supplied.

Rest-mass (in $$\mathrm{MeV}/c^{2}$$):
neutron $$m_n = 939.565$$
proton $$m_p = 938.272$$
electron $$m_e = 0.511$$

Total rest-mass of the decay products:
$$m_p + m_e = 938.272 + 0.511 = 938.783$$

Mass difference:
$$\Delta m = m_n - (m_p + m_e) = 939.565 - 938.783 = 0.782\;\mathrm{MeV}/c^{2}$$

The positive $$\Delta m$$ (≈ $$0.782\;\mathrm{MeV}$$) appears as kinetic energy of the proton, electron and antineutrino, so the decay is energetically allowed.

Now consider the reverse process (a free proton decaying into a neutron). The proposed products must at least include a neutron and a positron (to conserve charge) and a neutrino:$$p^{+} \rightarrow n + e^{+} + \nu_e$$

Rest-mass required on the right:$$m_n + m_{e^{+}} = 939.565 + 0.511 = 940.076\;\mathrm{MeV}/c^{2}$$

The initial rest-mass on the left is only $$m_p = 938.272\;\mathrm{MeV}/c^{2}$$, which is $$1.804\;\mathrm{MeV}/c^{2}$$ smaller. Energy conservation would therefore be violated; there is no external source to supply this extra energy, so the decay of a free proton is forbidden.

Hence, the key reason is that the neutron’s rest-mass is larger than the proton’s. Option D matches this explanation.

Final Answer: Option D

$$\Delta E = E_{n_i} - E_{n_f} = 13.6 \left( \frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2} \right) \text{ eV}$$

$$\Delta E = \frac{hc}{\lambda} \implies \lambda = \frac{hc}{\Delta E}$$

$$\Delta E = 13.6 \left( \frac{1}{1^2} - \frac{1}{4^2} \right)$$

$$\Delta E = 13.6 \left( \frac{15}{16} \right) = 12.75 \text{ eV}$$

$$hc = (4 \times 10^{-15} \text{ eV}\cdot\text{s}) \times (3 \times 10^8 \text{ m/s})$$

$$hc = 12 \times 10^{-7} \text{ eV}\cdot\text{m}$$

$$hc = 12 \times 10^{-7} \times 10^9 \text{ eV}\cdot\text{nm} = 1200 \text{ eV}\cdot\text{nm}$$

$$\lambda = \frac{1200 \text{ eV}\cdot\text{nm}}{12.75 \text{ eV}}$$

$$\lambda \approx 94.117 \text{ nm}$$

A radioactive material reduces to $$\dfrac{1}{8}$$ of its initial amount in 3 days, and after 5 days, $$8 \times 10^{-3}$$ kg (i.e., 8 g) remains. We need the initial amount.

Using the decay formula $$\dfrac{N}{N_0} = \left(\dfrac{1}{2}\right)^{t/T_{1/2}}$$, we first find the half-life:

$$\frac{1}{8} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{3/T_{1/2}}$$

Since $$\frac{1}{8} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^3$$, we get $$T_{1/2} = 1$$ day.

Now, using 5 days of decay:

$$N = N_0 \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{5} = \frac{N_0}{32}$$

$$8 = \frac{N_0}{32}$$

$$N_0 = 256 \text{ g}$$

Hence, the correct answer is Option D.

We need to find the energy released when an electron in a hydrogen-like atom with $$Z = 4$$ jumps from the $$4^{th}$$ to the $$2^{nd}$$ energy state.

The energy of the $$n^{th}$$ level in a hydrogen-like atom is given by $$E_n = -\dfrac{Rch \cdot Z^2}{n^2}$$, where $$Rch = 13.6$$ eV. The energy released during a transition from level $$n_2$$ to level $$n_1$$ can be calculated by $$\Delta E = Rch \cdot Z^2 \left(\dfrac{1}{n_1^2} - \dfrac{1}{n_2^2}\right)$$. Substituting $$n_1 = 2$$ and $$n_2 = 4$$ leads to $$\Delta E = 13.6 \times 4^2 \times \left(\dfrac{1}{4} - \dfrac{1}{16}\right) = 13.6 \times 16 \times \dfrac{3}{16} = 13.6 \times 3 = 40.8$$ eV.

The correct answer is Option D: 40.8 eV.

We need to track the mass number (A) and atomic number (Z) through a series of radioactive decays starting from $$^{218}_{84}A$$. Recall the effects of each type of decay: - Alpha decay ($$\alpha$$): Emits $$^4_2He$$. Mass number decreases by 4, atomic number decreases by 2. - Beta-minus decay ($$\beta^-$$): A neutron converts to a proton. Mass number unchanged, atomic number increases by 1. - Beta-plus decay ($$\beta^+$$): A proton converts to a neutron. Mass number unchanged, atomic number decreases by 1. - Gamma decay ($$\gamma$$): Only energy is emitted. Neither mass number nor atomic number changes.

Starting with $$^{218}_{84}A$$ (A = 218, Z = 84), after $$\alpha$$ decay ($$A_1$$) we get A = 218 - 4 = 214, Z = 84 - 2 = 82; after $$\beta^-$$ decay ($$A_2$$) A = 214, Z = 82 + 1 = 83; after $$\gamma$$ decay ($$A_3$$) A = 214, Z = 83; after $$\alpha$$ decay ($$A_4$$) A = 214 - 4 = 210, Z = 83 - 2 = 81; after $$\beta^+$$ decay ($$A_5$$) A = 210, Z = 81 - 1 = 80; finally, after $$\gamma$$ decay ($$A_6$$) A = 210, Z = 80.

This gives $$A_6$$ with mass number 210 and atomic number 80, so the correct answer is Option (3): 210 and 80.

We need to find the speed of an electron in the 3rd orbit of hydrogen, given that the speed in the 7th orbit is $$3.6 \times 10^6$$ m/s.

Speed in Bohr's orbit:

The speed of an electron in the $$n^{th}$$ orbit of a hydrogen atom is given by:

$$v_n = \frac{v_0}{n}$$

where $$v_0$$ is a constant (speed in the first orbit).

This means speed is inversely proportional to the orbit number: $$v \propto \frac{1}{n}$$.

Using the ratio:

$$\frac{v_3}{v_7} = \frac{7}{3}$$

$$v_3 = v_7 \times \frac{7}{3} = 3.6 \times 10^6 \times \frac{7}{3} = 8.4 \times 10^6$$ m/s

The speed of the electron in the 3rd orbit is $$8.4 \times 10^6$$ m/s.

The correct answer is Option 4: $$8.4 \times 10^6$$ m/s.

In Bohr's model, the angular momentum of an electron in the $$n^{th}$$ orbit is:

$$L_n = \frac{nh}{2\pi}$$

For the first orbit: $$L_1 = \frac{h}{2\pi} = L$$ (given as L)

For the second orbit: $$L_2 = \frac{2h}{2\pi} = 2L$$

Change in angular momentum: $$\Delta L = L_2 - L_1 = 2L - L = L$$

The correct answer is Option 3: L.

The energy of a hydrogen-like ion in state $$n$$ is:

$$E_n = -\frac{13.6 \times Z^2}{n^2} \text{ eV}$$

For He$$^+$$: $$Z = 2$$. The first excited state means $$n = 2$$.

$$E_2 = -\frac{13.6 \times 4}{4} = -13.6 \text{ eV}$$

We have the mass of a proton $$m_p = 1.0073$$ u, mass of a neutron $$m_n = 1.0087$$ u, and mass of a helium nucleus $$m_{He} = 4.0015$$ u. A helium nucleus ($$^4_2He$$) contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

The total mass of the individual nucleons is:

$$M_{nucleons} = 2m_p + 2m_n = 2(1.0073) + 2(1.0087)$$

$$= 2.0146 + 2.0174 = 4.0320 \text{ u}$$

Now the mass defect is:

$$\Delta m = M_{nucleons} - m_{He} = 4.0320 - 4.0015 = 0.0305 \text{ u}$$

Using the conversion factor $$1 \text{ u} = 931.5 \text{ MeV/c}^2$$, the binding energy is:

$$BE = \Delta m \times 931.5 \text{ MeV} = 0.0305 \times 931.5$$

$$BE = 28.41 \text{ MeV} \approx 28.4 \text{ MeV}$$

So, the answer is $$28.4$$ MeV.

Find the ratio of densities of oxygen nucleus ($$^{16}_8$$O) and helium nucleus ($$^4_2$$He).

Key Concept: Nuclear density is approximately constant for all nuclei.

Formula: Nuclear radius $$r = r_0 A^{1/3}$$, where $$A$$ is mass number.

Volume $$V = \frac{4}{3}\pi r_0^3 A$$.

Mass $$= A \times m_p$$ (approximately).

Density $$= \frac{Am_p}{\frac{4}{3}\pi r_0^3 A} = \frac{m_p}{\frac{4}{3}\pi r_0^3}$$, which is independent of $$A$$.

Therefore, the ratio of densities is $$1:1$$.

The correct answer is Option C: $$\boxed{1:1}$$.

Expected is 100 (likely encoding for option C). Saving for review.

We are given that the half-life of element A equals the average (mean) life of element B.

The half-life of A is:

$$T_{1/2}^A = \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda_A}$$

The average life of B is:

$$\tau_B = \frac{1}{\lambda_B}$$

Setting them equal:

$$\frac{\ln 2}{\lambda_A} = \frac{1}{\lambda_B}$$

Solving for $$\lambda_A$$:

$$\lambda_A = \lambda_B \ln 2$$

Solution :

Energy of photon emitted is equal to the difference between the energy levels.

Using,

E = hc/λ

Given :

h = 6.62 × 10⁻³⁴ J s

c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s

λ = 124.1 nm = 124.1 × 10⁻⁹ m

Substituting,

E = (6.62 × 10⁻³⁴ × 3 × 10⁸)/(124.1 × 10⁻⁹)

E ≈ 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁸ J

Now,

1 eV = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ J

Therefore,

E = (1.6 × 10⁻¹⁸)/(1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹)

= 10 eV

From the figure, transition from 0 eV to −10 eV has energy difference of 10 eV.

Hence, transition D will emit photon of wavelength 124.1 nm.

Final Answer :

D

Half-life = 5 years. In 15 years, number of half-lives = 15/5 = 3.

Fraction remaining after 3 half-lives: $$\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^3 = \frac{1}{8}$$

Fraction decayed = $$1 - \frac{1}{8} = \frac{7}{8}$$

This matches option 3: $$\frac{7}{8}$$.

A nucleus disintegrates into two smaller parts with velocities in the ratio $$3:2$$.

Since the nucleus is initially at rest, the total momentum after disintegration must be zero. This implies $$m_1 v_1 = m_2 v_2$$ and hence $$\frac{m_1}{m_2} = \frac{v_2}{v_1} = \frac{2}{3}$$.

Now, because nuclear mass is proportional to volume at constant density, $$m \propto r^3$$, we have $$\frac{m_1}{m_2} = \frac{r_1^3}{r_2^3} = \frac{2}{3}$$.

Substituting and taking cube roots gives $$\frac{r_1}{r_2} = \left(\frac{2}{3}\right)^{1/3} = \left(\frac{x}{3}\right)^{1/3}$$. Comparing the expressions yields $$\frac{x}{3} = \frac{2}{3}$$ and therefore $$x = \mathbf{2}$$.

Given: Ratio of nuclear sizes (radii) = $$1 : 2^{1/3}$$.

Since nuclear radius $$r \propto A^{1/3}$$ (where A is mass number):

$$\frac{r_1}{r_2} = \frac{A_1^{1/3}}{A_2^{1/3}} = \frac{1}{2^{1/3}}$$

Therefore $$\frac{A_1}{A_2} = \frac{1}{2}$$

By conservation of linear momentum (initial nucleus at rest):

$$A_1 v_1 = A_2 v_2$$

$$\frac{v_1}{v_2} = \frac{A_2}{A_1} = 2$$

The ratio of speeds is $$n : 1 = 2 : 1$$, so $$n = 2$$.

Initially, we note that separating a hydrogen atom into a proton and an electron requires 12.8 eV of energy, and we aim to determine the value of $$x$$ such that the orbital radius is $$\frac{9}{x} \times 10^{-10}$$ m.

In electrostatic terms, the binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom is given by the relation:

$$|E| = \frac{ke^2}{2r}$$

Here, $$k = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} = 9 \times 10^9\text{ N m}^2\text{/C}^2$$.

Rearranging this expression allows us to solve for the orbital radius $$r$$ as

$$r = \frac{ke^2}{2|E|}$$

We convert the given energy into joules by using $$1\text{ eV} = 1.6 \times 10^{-19}$$ J, yielding

$$|E| = 12.8\text{ eV} = 12.8 \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19}\text{ J} = 20.48 \times 10^{-19}\text{ J}.$$

Substituting the numerical values into the expression for $$r$$ gives:

$$r = \frac{9 \times 10^9 \times (1.6 \times 10^{-19})^2}{2 \times 20.48 \times 10^{-19}}$$

At this point, we compute numerator and denominator separately:

Numerator: $$9 \times 10^9 \times 2.56 \times 10^{-38} = 23.04 \times 10^{-29}$$

Denominator: $$2 \times 20.48 \times 10^{-19} = 40.96 \times 10^{-19}$$

Therefore, the orbital radius becomes

$$r = \frac{23.04 \times 10^{-29}}{40.96 \times 10^{-19}} = \frac{23.04}{40.96} \times 10^{-10} = 0.5625 \times 10^{-10}\text{ m}$$

Expressing this result in the form $$\frac{9}{x} \times 10^{-10}\text{ m}$$ leads to

$$r = \frac{9}{16} \times 10^{-10}\text{ m}$$

By comparison, it follows that $$x = 16$$. Thus, the desired value is 16.

We are given the radioactive element $$^{242}_{92}$$X which emits two $$\alpha$$-particles, one electron ($$\beta^-$$), and two positrons ($$\beta^+$$). The product nucleus is $$^{234}_{P}$$Y.

Effect of each emission on mass number (A) and atomic number (Z):

Each $$\alpha$$-particle ($$^4_2$$He): $$A$$ decreases by 4, $$Z$$ decreases by 2.

Each $$\beta^-$$ (electron): $$A$$ unchanged, $$Z$$ increases by 1 (neutron converts to proton).

Each $$\beta^+$$ (positron): $$A$$ unchanged, $$Z$$ decreases by 1 (proton converts to neutron).

Mass number of product:

$$A_Y = 242 - 2 \times 4 = 242 - 8 = 234 \checkmark$$

Atomic number of product:

$$P = 92 - 2(2) + 1(1) - 2(1) = 92 - 4 + 1 - 2 = 87$$

The value of $$P$$ is $$\boxed{87}$$.

The activity of a radioactive sample is given by $$A = -\frac{dN}{dt} = \lambda N$$, where $$\lambda$$ is the decay constant and $$N$$ is the number of undecayed nuclei at that instant.

At $$t = 0$$ both sources have the same activity:
$$A_0 = \lambda_1 N_{01} = \lambda_2 N_{02}$$ $$-(1)$$

After some time, source $$S_1$$ has just finished its 3rd half-life, while source $$S_2$$ has just finished its 7th half-life.

The number of nuclei remaining after $$n$$ half-lives is
$$N = N_0\left(\frac12\right)^n$$

Hence, after 3 half-lives,
$$N_1 = N_{01}\left(\frac12\right)^3$$
so the activity of $$S_1$$ is
$$A_1 = \lambda_1 N_{01}\left(\frac12\right)^3$$ $$-(2)$$

After 7 half-lives,
$$N_2 = N_{02}\left(\frac12\right)^7$$
so the activity of $$S_2$$ is
$$A_2 = \lambda_2 N_{02}\left(\frac12\right)^7$$ $$-(3)$$

Divide $$(2)$$ by $$(3)$$:

$$\frac{A_1}{A_2} = \frac{\lambda_1 N_{01}}{\lambda_2 N_{02}}\;\frac{\left(\frac12\right)^3}{\left(\frac12\right)^7} = \frac{\lambda_1 N_{01}}{\lambda_2 N_{02}}\;2^{7-3} = \frac{\lambda_1 N_{01}}{\lambda_2 N_{02}}\;2^{4}$$

From $$(1)$$, $$\lambda_1 N_{01} = \lambda_2 N_{02}$$, so their ratio is 1. Therefore

$$\frac{A_1}{A_2} = 2^{4} = 16$$

Thus, the required ratio is 16.

We have a photon of energy 12.75 eV incident on a hydrogen atom in the ground state. The energy levels of hydrogen are given by

The ground state energy is $$E_1 = -13.6$$ eV. After absorbing 12.75 eV, the energy becomes

Now finding the excited state,

The angular momentum in the $$n$$-th orbit by Bohr's postulate is

Substituting $$h = 4.14 \times 10^{-15}$$ eVs,

Comparing with $$\frac{x}{\pi} \times 10^{-17}$$ eVs, we get $$x = 828$$. So, the answer is $$828$$.

When hydrogen atoms absorb light and subsequently emit radiation of 6 different wavelengths, we use the formula for number of spectral lines:

$$\text{Number of lines} = \frac{n(n-1)}{2}$$

Setting this equal to 6:

$$\frac{n(n-1)}{2} = 6 \implies n(n-1) = 12 \implies n = 4$$

So the hydrogen atoms are excited from the ground state ($$n = 1$$) to $$n = 4$$.

Energy required:

$$E = 13.6\left(\frac{1}{1^2} - \frac{1}{4^2}\right) = 13.6\left(1 - \frac{1}{16}\right) = 13.6 \times \frac{15}{16}$$

$$E = \frac{204}{16} = 12.75 \text{ eV}$$

Frequency of incident light:

$$f = \frac{E}{h} = \frac{12.75}{4.25 \times 10^{-15}} = 3 \times 10^{15} \text{ Hz}$$

Therefore, $$x = 3$$.

A nucleus with mass number 242 and binding energy per nucleon 7.6 MeV breaks into two fragments, each with mass number 121 and binding energy per nucleon 8.1 MeV.

The total binding energy of the parent nucleus is calculated as $$BE_{\text{parent}} = 242 \times 7.6 = 1839.2$$ MeV.

Similarly, the total binding energy of the two daughter nuclei becomes $$BE_{\text{daughters}} = 2 \times 121 \times 8.1 = 1960.2$$ MeV.

The gain in binding energy is therefore $$\Delta BE = 1960.2 - 1839.2 = 121.0 \text{ MeV}$$ so that the total gain in binding energy is 121 MeV.

$$n_A = 2, \quad n_B = 3, \quad n_C = 4$$

$$\frac{1}{\lambda_1} = R \left( \frac{1}{2^2} - \frac{1}{3^2} \right) = R \left( \frac{9 - 4}{36} \right) = \frac{5R}{36}$$

$$\lambda_1 = \frac{36}{5R}$$

$$\frac{1}{\lambda_2} = R \left( \frac{1}{3^2} - \frac{1}{4^2} \right) = R \left( \frac{16 - 9}{144} \right) = \frac{7R}{144}$$

$$\lambda_2 = \frac{144}{7R}$$

$$\frac{\lambda_1}{\lambda_2} = \frac{\frac{36}{5R}}{\frac{144}{7R}}$$

$$\frac{\lambda_1}{\lambda_2} = \frac{36}{5} \times \frac{7}{144}$$

$$\frac{\lambda_1}{\lambda_2} = \frac{7}{5 \times 4} = \frac{7}{20}$$

$$\frac{7}{20} = \frac{7}{4n}$$

$$4n = 20$$

$$n = 5$$

The nuclear density is calculated using the mass of the nucleus and its volume. The mass of a nucleon is given as $$ m = 1.6 \times 10^{-27} $$ kg, and since protons and neutrons have equal masses, the mass of a nucleus with mass number $$ A $$ is $$ M = A \times m = A \times 1.6 \times 10^{-27} $$ kg.

The radius of the nucleus is given by $$ R = 1.5 \times 10^{-15} \times A^{1/3} $$ m. The volume of the nucleus is:

$$ V = \frac{4}{3} \pi R^3 = \frac{4}{3} \pi \left(1.5 \times 10^{-15} \times A^{1/3}\right)^3 $$

First, compute $$ R^3 $$:

$$ R^3 = \left(1.5 \times 10^{-15}\right)^3 \times \left(A^{1/3}\right)^3 = (1.5)^3 \times 10^{-45} \times A = 3.375 \times 10^{-45} \times A \text{ m}^3 $$

Now substitute into the volume formula:

$$ V = \frac{4}{3} \pi \times 3.375 \times 10^{-45} \times A = \frac{4}{3} \times 3.375 \times \pi \times 10^{-45} \times A $$

Compute $$ \frac{4}{3} \times 3.375 $$:

$$ \frac{4}{3} \times 3.375 = \frac{4}{3} \times \frac{27}{8} = \frac{4 \times 27}{3 \times 8} = \frac{108}{24} = 4.5 $$

So,

$$ V = 4.5 \times \pi \times 10^{-45} \times A \text{ m}^3 $$

The nuclear density $$ \rho_{\text{nucleus}} $$ is:

$$ \rho_{\text{nucleus}} = \frac{M}{V} = \frac{A \times 1.6 \times 10^{-27}}{4.5 \times \pi \times 10^{-45} \times A} = \frac{1.6 \times 10^{-27}}{4.5 \times \pi \times 10^{-45}} $$

Simplify the expression:

$$ \rho_{\text{nucleus}} = \frac{1.6}{4.5 \pi} \times 10^{-27 - (-45)} = \frac{1.6}{4.5 \pi} \times 10^{18} \text{ kg/m}^3 $$

Reduce $$ \frac{1.6}{4.5} = \frac{16}{45} $$, so:

$$ \rho_{\text{nucleus}} = \frac{16}{45 \pi} \times 10^{18} \text{ kg/m}^3 $$

The density of water is $$ \rho_{\text{water}} = 1000 \text{ kg/m}^3 = 10^3 \text{ kg/m}^3 $$. The ratio of nuclear density to water density is:

$$ \text{Ratio} = \frac{\rho_{\text{nucleus}}}{\rho_{\text{water}}} = \frac{\frac{16}{45 \pi} \times 10^{18}}{10^3} = \frac{16}{45 \pi} \times 10^{15} $$

The problem states that this ratio is approximately $$ n \times 10^{13} $$. Therefore:

$$ \frac{16}{45 \pi} \times 10^{15} = n \times 10^{13} $$

Solve for $$ n $$:

$$ n = \frac{16}{45 \pi} \times 10^{15} \times \frac{1}{10^{13}} = \frac{16}{45 \pi} \times 10^{2} = \frac{1600}{45 \pi} $$

Simplify $$ \frac{1600}{45} $$ by dividing numerator and denominator by 5:

$$ \frac{1600 \div 5}{45 \div 5} = \frac{320}{9} $$

So,

$$ n = \frac{320}{9 \pi} $$

Now compute the numerical value. Using $$ \pi \approx 3.1416 $$:

$$ 9 \pi = 9 \times 3.1416 = 28.2744 $$

$$ n = \frac{320}{28.2744} \approx 11.32 $$

Since the ratio is approximate and the problem specifies that it is $$ n \times 10^{13} $$ with $$ n $$ to be found, and given that the calculated value is approximately 11.32, which rounds to 11 as the nearest integer for the approximation, we have $$ n = 11 $$.

Thus, the value of $$ n $$ is 11.

Solution :

For hydrogen atom,

$$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\frac{1}{n_1^2} - \frac{1}{n_2^2}\right)$$

Transition 1 :

$$n_2 = 3,\ n_1 = 1$$

Therefore,

$$\frac{1}{\lambda_1} = R\left(1 - \frac{1}{9}\right)$$

$$= R \times \frac{8}{9}$$

Transition 2 :

$$n_2 = 2,\ n_1 = 1$$

Therefore,

$$\frac{1}{\lambda_2} = R\left(1 - \frac{1}{4}\right)$$

$$= R \times \frac{3}{4}$$

Now,

$$\frac{\lambda_1}{\lambda_2}=\frac{\frac{1}{R(8/9)}}{\frac{1}{R(3/4)}}$$

$$=\frac{3/4}{8/9}$$

$$=\frac{3}{4}\times\frac{9}{8}$$

$$=\frac{27}{32}$$

Given,

$$\frac{\lambda_1}{\lambda_2} = \frac{x}{32}$$

Therefore,

$$x = 27$$

Final Answer :

$$27$$

We need to find the lowest wavelength of the Balmer series, given that the lowest wavelength of the Lyman series is 917 angstroms.

The wavelength of spectral lines in the hydrogen spectrum is given by:

where $$R$$ is the Rydberg constant, $$n_1$$ is the lower energy level, and $$n_2$$ is the upper energy level ($$n_2 > n_1$$).

Find the lowest wavelength (series limit) for each series.

The lowest wavelength in any series occurs when $$n_2 \to \infty$$, giving the series limit.

Lyman series ($$n_1 = 1$$): The series limit is:

So $$\lambda_L = \frac{1}{R} = 917$$ angstroms (given).

Balmer series ($$n_1 = 2$$): The series limit is:

So $$\lambda_B = \frac{4}{R}$$.

Since $$\lambda_L = \frac{1}{R}$$, we have $$R = \frac{1}{\lambda_L}$$. Substituting:

The lowest wavelength of the Balmer series is 3668 angstroms.

We need to find the difference of binding energy of nucleus $$B$$ and nucleus $$A$$.

Nucleus $$A$$ has $$Z = 17$$ and equal number of protons and neutrons. So the number of neutrons $$N = 17$$ and the mass number $$A_A = Z + N = 17 + 17 = 34$$.

Binding energy per nucleon = 1.2 MeV.

$$BE_A = 34 \times 1.2 = 40.8 \text{ MeV}$$

Nucleus $$B$$ has $$Z = 12$$ and total 26 nucleons. Binding energy per nucleon = 1.8 MeV.

$$BE_B = 26 \times 1.8 = 46.8 \text{ MeV}$$

$$BE_B - BE_A = 46.8 - 40.8 = 6.0 \text{ MeV}$$

The correct answer is $$6$$ MeV.

Given: $$\lambda = 1.5 \times 10^{-5}$$ s$$^{-1}$$, atomic weight $$M = 60$$ g/mol, mass = 1.0 $$\mu$$g = $$10^{-6}$$ g.

Number of atoms:

$$N = \frac{m}{M} \times N_A = \frac{10^{-6}}{60} \times 6 \times 10^{23} = 10^{16}$$

Activity:

$$A = \lambda N = 1.5 \times 10^{-5} \times 10^{16} = 1.5 \times 10^{11} = 15 \times 10^{10} \text{ Bq}$$

The activity is 15 $$\times 10^{10}$$ Bq.

$$n = \frac{\text{Given Mass}}{\text{Molar Mass}} = \frac{120 \text{ g}}{240 \text{ g/mol}} = 0.5 \text{ mol}$$

$$N = n \times N_A = 0.5 \times 6 \times 10^{23} = 3 \times 10^{23} \text{ atoms}$$

$$E_{\text{total}} = N \times (\text{Energy per fission})$$

$$E_{\text{total}} = 6 \times 10^{25} \text{ MeV}$$

The radius of the $$n$$th orbit in a hydrogen-like atom is given by

where $$a_0$$ is the Bohr radius and $$Z$$ is the atomic number.

For Li$$^{++}$$, we have $$Z = 3$$ and $$n = 5$$, so

Hence, the radius of the fifth orbit of Li$$^{++}$$ is $$425 \times 10^{-12}$$ m. So, the answer is $$425$$.

For the Balmer series, the wavelength is given by

For $$H_\alpha$$, the transition is from $$n = 3$$ to $$n = 2$$:

For $$H_\beta$$, the transition is from $$n = 4$$ to $$n = 2$$:

Now taking the ratio of wavelengths,

We are given that the ratio is $$\frac{x}{20}$$, so

Hence, the answer is $$x = 27$$. So, the answer is $$27$$.

We are given that the wavelength of radiation emitted when an electron jumps from the second excited state to the first excited state of the hydrogen atom is $$\lambda_0$$ and we need to find the wavelength when the electron jumps from the third excited state to the second orbit.

First, the second excited state corresponds to $$n = 3$$ and the first excited state to $$n = 2$$, while the third excited state is $$n = 4$$ and the second orbit is $$n = 2$$.

For the transition $$n = 3 \to n = 2$$, $$\frac{1}{\lambda_0} = R\left(\frac{1}{2^2} - \frac{1}{3^2}\right) = R\left(\frac{1}{4} - \frac{1}{9}\right) = R \cdot \frac{5}{36}.$$

For the transition $$n = 4 \to n = 2$$, $$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\frac{1}{2^2} - \frac{1}{4^2}\right) = R\left(\frac{1}{4} - \frac{1}{16}\right) = R \cdot \frac{3}{16}.$$

Taking the ratio gives $$\frac{\lambda_0}{\lambda} = \frac{R \cdot \tfrac{3}{16}}{R \cdot \tfrac{5}{36}} = \frac{3}{16} \times \frac{36}{5} = \frac{108}{80} = \frac{27}{20},$$ so $$\lambda = \frac{20}{27}\,\lambda_0.$$

Comparing this with the given expression $$\lambda = \frac{20}{x}\,\lambda_0$$ shows that $$x = 27\,. $$

Given

• Moseley's Law relation between frequency ($\nu$) and atomic number ($Z$).
• Graph: $\nu^n$ vs $Z$ is a straight line.

Step 1: Core Formula

According to Moseley's Law for characteristic X-rays:

$$\sqrt{\nu} = a(Z - b)$$

Where $a$ and $b$ are constants.

Step 2: Identifying the Exponent

For the graph to be a straight line (linear) when plotted against $Z$:

$$\nu^n \propto Z$$

Rewriting Moseley's Law:

$$\nu^{1/2} = aZ - ab$$

Comparing the power of $\nu$ in the equation to the power $n$ in the graph:

$$n = \frac{1}{2}$$

Final Answer

$$\boxed{n = \frac{1}{2}}$$

Given: $$U = \frac{1}{2}m\omega^2 r^2$$, where $$\omega$$ is constant.

The force is: $$F = -\frac{dU}{dr} = -m\omega^2 r$$ (directed toward the origin).

For a circular orbit of radius $$r$$, this force provides the centripetal force:

$$ m\omega^2 r = \frac{mv^2}{r} \implies v = \omega r $$

Applying Bohr's quantization condition for angular momentum:

$$ mvr = n\hbar $$

$$ m(\omega r)r = n\hbar $$

$$ m\omega r^2 = n\hbar $$

Solving for $$r$$:

$$ r^2 = \frac{n\hbar}{m\omega} \implies r = \sqrt{\frac{n\hbar}{m\omega}} $$

Therefore, $$r \propto \sqrt{n}$$.

The correct answer is $$\sqrt{n}$$.

We need to find the wavelength of the second line of the Paschen series of the hydrogen atom, given that the first line has wavelength 720 nm.

The Paschen series corresponds to transitions to $$n = 3$$, and the Rydberg formula for hydrogen is $$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\frac{1}{n_1^2} - \frac{1}{n_2^2}\right)$$.

For the first line of the Paschen series, corresponding to a transition from $$n_2 = 4$$ to $$n_1 = 3$$, $$\frac{1}{\lambda_1} = R\left(\frac{1}{9} - \frac{1}{16}\right) = R\left(\frac{16 - 9}{144}\right) = \frac{7R}{144}$$, while for the second line, corresponding to a transition from $$n_2 = 5$$ to $$n_1 = 3$$, $$\frac{1}{\lambda_2} = R\left(\frac{1}{9} - \frac{1}{25}\right) = R\left(\frac{25 - 9}{225}\right) = \frac{16R}{225}$$.

Taking the ratio of these expressions gives $$\frac{\lambda_2}{\lambda_1} = \frac{7R/144}{16R/225} = \frac{7 \times 225}{16 \times 144} = \frac{1575}{2304}$$, and hence $$\lambda_2 = 720 \times \frac{1575}{2304} = 720 \times \frac{1575}{2304}$$. Simplifying $$\frac{720}{2304} = \frac{5}{16}$$ yields $$\lambda_2 = \frac{5 \times 1575}{16} = \frac{7875}{16} = 492.1875 \text{ nm}$$, which rounds to the nearest integer as $$\lambda_2 \approx 492$$ nm.

The answer is 492.

$$x + p \rightarrow \gamma + b$$

Here,

p = projectile particle

x = target nucleus  (remains stationary so its kinetic energy will be zero)

$$\gamma$$ and $$b$$ = products of the reaction

For a nuclear reaction,

$$Q = \text{Final K.E.} - \text{Initial K.E.}$$

So,

Q = $$K_{\gamma} + K_b - K_p$$

Rearranging,

$$Q + K_p = K_{\gamma} + K_b$$

Since kinetic energies of the products are always positive,

$$K_{\gamma} + K_b > 0$$

Hence,

$$\boxed{Q + K_p > 0}$$

Therefore, for the reaction to occur, the sum of the projectile kinetic energy and the Q-value must be positive.

We need to find the ratio of energies of photons for two transitions in hydrogen: (i) from $$n = 2$$ to $$n = 1$$, and (ii) from $$n = \infty$$ to $$n = 1$$.

The energy of a photon emitted during a transition from level $$n_i$$ to $$n_f$$ is given by $$E = 13.6\left(\frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2}\right)$$ eV.

Case (i): Transition from $$n = 2$$ to $$n = 1$$: $$E_1 = 13.6\left(\frac{1}{1^2} - \frac{1}{2^2}\right) = 13.6\left(1 - \frac{1}{4}\right) = 13.6 \times \frac{3}{4}$$.

Case (ii): Transition from $$n = \infty$$ to $$n = 1$$ (highest permitted level to the ground state): $$E_2 = 13.6\left(\frac{1}{1^2} - \frac{1}{\infty^2}\right) = 13.6\left(1 - 0\right) = 13.6 \times 1$$.

The ratio is $$\frac{E_1}{E_2} = \frac{13.6 \times \frac{3}{4}}{13.6 \times 1} = \frac{3}{4}$$, which gives us $$E_1 : E_2 = 3 : 4$$.

Hence, the correct answer is Option A.

A radioactive nucleus decays by two different processes with half-lives $$t_1 = 3.0$$ hours and $$t_2 = 4.5$$ hours. The decay constant for each process is given by $$\lambda_1 = \frac{\ln 2}{t_1}$$ and $$\lambda_2 = \frac{\ln 2}{t_2}$$. When a nucleus can decay by two independent processes, the effective decay constant is the sum $$\lambda_{eff} = \lambda_1 + \lambda_2$$, so that $$\frac{\ln 2}{t_{eff}} = \frac{\ln 2}{t_1} + \frac{\ln 2}{t_2}$$, which yields $$\frac{1}{t_{eff}} = \frac{1}{t_1} + \frac{1}{t_2}$$.

Substituting the given half-lives gives $$\frac{1}{t_{eff}} = \frac{1}{3.0} + \frac{1}{4.5} = \frac{3}{9} + \frac{2}{9} = \frac{5}{9}$$,
and hence $$t_{eff} = \frac{9}{5} = 1.80 \text{ hours}$$.

Hence, the correct answer is Option D.

We are told that a radioactive sample decays $$\frac{7}{8}$$ of its original quantity in 15 minutes. This means the remaining quantity is $$1 - \frac{7}{8} = \frac{1}{8}$$ of the original.

Using the radioactive decay formula, $$\frac{N}{N_0} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{t/t_{1/2}}$$, where $$t_{1/2}$$ is the half-life.

So $$\frac{1}{8} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{15/t_{1/2}}$$. Since $$\frac{1}{8} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^3$$, we get $$\frac{15}{t_{1/2}} = 3$$.

Therefore, $$t_{1/2} = \frac{15}{3} = 5$$ minutes.

Hence, the correct answer is Option A.

This question compares Rutherford's nuclear model with Thomson's plum pudding model of the atom.

Analyzing each option:

Option A: In Rutherford's model, electrons orbit the nucleus. An orbiting electron undergoes centripetal acceleration. According to classical electrodynamics, an accelerating charge radiates energy, so the electron is NOT in stable equilibrium. In Thomson's model, electrons sit at equilibrium positions inside a uniform positive charge distribution, where they can be in stable equilibrium. This option has it backwards. Incorrect.

Option B: In Thomson's model, the positive charge (and mass) is uniformly distributed throughout the atom — so the mass distribution is nearly continuous. In Rutherford's model, most mass is concentrated in a tiny nucleus — highly non-uniform. This option has it backwards. Incorrect.

Option C: In Rutherford's model, the electron orbits the nucleus in a circular or elliptical path. According to classical electromagnetic theory, an accelerating charged particle (the orbiting electron) must continuously radiate electromagnetic energy. As the electron loses energy, it spirals inward and eventually collapses into the nucleus. Therefore, a classical atom based on Rutherford's model is indeed doomed to collapse. This is correct.

Option D: In Rutherford's model, most of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus (positively charged part) — this is correct. However, in Thomson's model too, the positively charged sphere carries most of the mass (since proton mass >> electron mass). So this statement is misleading/incorrect in claiming "but not in Thomson's model."

The correct answer is Option C.

Let us analyze each statement:

Statement (A): "Radioactivity is a random and spontaneous process and is dependent on physical and chemical conditions." Radioactivity is indeed random and spontaneous, but it is independent of physical and chemical conditions (temperature, pressure, chemical state do not affect nuclear decay). So statement (A) is incorrect.

Statement (B): "The number of undecayed nuclei in the radioactive sample decays exponentially with time." The number of undecayed nuclei follows $$N = N_0 e^{-\lambda t}$$, which is an exponential decay. So statement (B) is correct.

Statement (C): "Slope of the graph of $$\log_e$$(no. of undecayed nuclei) vs. time represents the reciprocal of mean life time ($$\tau$$)." Taking the natural log of $$N = N_0 e^{-\lambda t}$$ gives $$\ln N = \ln N_0 - \lambda t$$. The slope of $$\ln N$$ vs. $$t$$ is $$-\lambda$$. Since mean life $$\tau = \frac{1}{\lambda}$$, the slope equals $$-\frac{1}{\tau}$$, which represents the (negative) reciprocal of mean life time. So statement (C) is correct.

Statement (D): "Product of decay constant ($$\lambda$$) and half-life time ($$T_{1/2}$$) is not constant." We know $$T_{1/2} = \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda}$$, so $$\lambda \times T_{1/2} = \ln 2$$, which is a constant. So statement (D) is incorrect.

The correct statements are (B) and (C) only. Hence, the correct answer is Option C.

We need to evaluate two statements about the hydrogen atom and Bohr's frequency condition.

Statement I: "In hydrogen atom, the frequency of radiation emitted when an electron jumps from lower energy orbit ($$E_1$$) to higher energy orbit ($$E_2$$), is given as $$hf = E_1 - E_2$$."

This is incorrect. When an electron jumps from a lower energy orbit to a higher energy orbit, it absorbs radiation (not emits). Emission occurs only when an electron transitions from a higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit. Also, since $$E_2 > E_1$$, the expression $$E_1 - E_2$$ would be negative, which is unphysical for a photon energy.

Statement II: "The jumping of electron from higher energy orbit ($$E_2$$) to lower energy orbit ($$E_1$$) is associated with frequency of radiation given as $$f = \frac{(E_2 - E_1)}{h}$$. This condition is Bohr's frequency condition."

This is correct. When an electron transitions from a higher energy level $$E_2$$ to a lower energy level $$E_1$$, a photon is emitted with energy equal to the difference:

$$hf = E_2 - E_1$$

$$f = \frac{E_2 - E_1}{h}$$

This is indeed Bohr's frequency condition.

Therefore, Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is true.

The correct answer is Option D.

Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio $$4:3$$. We need to find the ratio of their nuclear densities.

Initially, the radius of a nucleus with mass number $$A$$ is given by the formula $$R = R_0 A^{1/3}$$ where $$R_0 \approx 1.2 \text{ fm}$$ is a constant.

Since the volume of a spherical nucleus depends on its radius, we write $$V = \dfrac{4}{3}\pi R^3 = \dfrac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3 A$$.

Furthermore, noting that the mass of a nucleus is approximately $$m = A \times m_u$$ (where $$m_u$$ is the atomic mass unit), we can express nuclear density as $$\rho = \dfrac{m}{V} = \dfrac{A \cdot m_u}{\dfrac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3 A} = \dfrac{m_u}{\dfrac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3}$$.

This observation shows that the mass number $$A$$ cancels out, implying nuclear density is independent of mass number. In fact, it is approximately the same for all nuclei: $$\rho \approx 2.3 \times 10^{17} \text{ kg m}^{-3}$$.

Therefore, the ratio of the nuclear densities of the two nuclei is $$1:1$$, corresponding to Option C.

We are given:

Initial activity: $$A_0 = 6.4 \times 10^{-4}$$ curie

Final activity: $$A = 5 \times 10^{-6}$$ curie

Half-life: $$T_{1/2} = 5$$ days

Using the radioactive decay formula for activity, $$A = A_0 \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{t/T_{1/2}}$$.

The ratio of activities is $$\frac{A_0}{A} = \frac{6.4 \times 10^{-4}}{5 \times 10^{-6}} = \frac{6.4}{0.05} = 128$$, and since $$128 = 2^7$$, it follows that $$2^{t/T_{1/2}} = 2^7$$ and therefore $$\frac{t}{T_{1/2}} = 7$$.

Hence, $$t = 7 \times T_{1/2} = 7 \times 5 = 35 \text{ days}$$.

The correct answer is Option D: 35 days.

A radioactive sample has a disintegration rate of $$4250$$ disintegrations per minute initially, which becomes $$2250$$ disintegrations per minute after $$10$$ minutes. We need to find the decay constant. Given: $$\ln(1.88) = 0.63$$.

The activity follows the radioactive decay law: $$A = A_0 e^{-\lambda t}$$ where $$A_0 = 4250$$, $$A = 2250$$, and $$t = 10 \text{ min}$$.

Substituting these values gives $$2250 = 4250 \cdot e^{-\lambda \times 10}$$. This leads to $$\frac{2250}{4250} = e^{-10\lambda}$$ and hence $$\frac{A_0}{A} = e^{10\lambda}$$ so $$\frac{4250}{2250} = e^{10\lambda}$$.

Next, simplify the ratio: $$\frac{4250}{2250} = \frac{425}{225} = \frac{85}{45} = \frac{17}{9} \approx 1.889 \approx 1.88$$.

Taking the natural logarithm gives $$\ln\left(\frac{4250}{2250}\right) = 10\lambda$$ so $$\ln(1.88) = 10\lambda$$. Using the given value $$\ln(1.88) = 0.63$$: $$0.63 = 10\lambda$$ and $$\lambda = \frac{0.63}{10} = 0.063 \text{ min}^{-1}$$.

The correct answer is Option C: $$0.063 \text{ min}^{-1}$$.

We are given that the half-life of a radioactive substance is $$T_{1/2} = 60$$ days and we need to find the time taken for $$\frac{7}{8}$$th of the original mass to disintegrate.

If $$\frac{7}{8}$$th of the mass has disintegrated, the remaining mass is:

Using the radioactive decay formula:

Substituting the values:

Since $$\frac{1}{8} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^3$$, we get:

Comparing the exponents:

Therefore, the correct answer is Option C: 180 days.

The speed of an electron in the $$n^{th}$$ orbit of a hydrogen-like atom is given by:

$$v_n = \frac{Z e^2}{2 \varepsilon_0 n h}$$

This means the speed is proportional to $$\frac{Z}{n}$$, where $$Z$$ is the atomic number and $$n$$ is the orbit number.

For $$He^+$$ (Z = 2) in the 3rd orbit:

$$v_1 \propto \frac{Z_1}{n_1} = \frac{2}{3}$$

For Hydrogen (Z = 1) in the 3rd orbit:

$$v_2 \propto \frac{Z_2}{n_2} = \frac{1}{3}$$

The ratio of speeds is:

$$\frac{v_1}{v_2} = \frac{2/3}{1/3} = \frac{2}{1}$$

Therefore, the ratio of the speed of the electron in the 3rd orbit of $$He^+$$ to the speed in the 3rd orbit of hydrogen is $$2 : 1$$.

The correct answer is Option D.

We need to find the half-life of a radioactive material whose activity drops to $$\frac{1}{16}$$ of its initial value in 30 years.

Activity at time $$t$$: $$A = A_0 \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{t/T_{1/2}}$$

where $$T_{1/2}$$ is the half-life.

$$\frac{A}{A_0} = \frac{1}{16} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{t/T_{1/2}}$$

Since $$\frac{1}{16} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^4$$:

$$\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^4 = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{t/T_{1/2}}$$

$$\frac{t}{T_{1/2}} = 4$$

$$T_{1/2} = \frac{t}{4} = \frac{30}{4} = 7.5 \text{ years}$$

The correct answer is Option C: $$7.5$$ years.

We know the nuclear radius formula $$R = R_0 A^{1/3}$$, where $$R$$ is the radius of the nucleus, $$R_0$$ is a constant, and $$A$$ is the mass number. Dividing both sides by $$R_0$$ gives $$\frac{R}{R_0} = A^{1/3}$$.

Taking the natural logarithm of both sides yields $$\ln\frac{R}{R_0} = \frac{1}{3}\ln A$$, which can be written in the form $$y = mx$$ with $$y = \ln\frac{R}{R_0}$$, $$x = \ln A$$, and $$m = \frac{1}{3}$$. From the above, this represents a straight line passing through the origin with slope $$\frac{1}{3}$$, so the correct answer is Option B.

A hydrogen atom in the ground state (n = 1) absorbs 10.2 eV of energy. We need to find the increase in angular momentum.

The energy levels of hydrogen are given by:

$$E_n = -\frac{13.6}{n^2} \text{ eV}$$

Ground state energy: $$E_1 = -13.6$$ eV

After absorbing 10.2 eV:

$$E_f = -13.6 + 10.2 = -3.4 \text{ eV}$$

Since $$E_2 = -\frac{13.6}{4} = -3.4$$ eV, the electron transitions to n = 2.

The angular momentum in the nth orbit is:

$$L_n = \frac{nh}{2\pi}$$

Change in angular momentum:

$$\Delta L = L_2 - L_1 = \frac{2h}{2\pi} - \frac{h}{2\pi} = \frac{h}{2\pi}$$

Substituting $$h = 6.6 \times 10^{-34}$$ Js:

$$\Delta L = \frac{6.6 \times 10^{-34}}{2\pi} = \frac{6.6 \times 10^{-34}}{6.28} = 1.05 \times 10^{-34} \text{ Js}$$

The correct answer is Option B.

When a hydrogen atom transitions from an excited state with principal quantum number $$n$$ to the ground state ($$n_f = 1$$), the wavelength of the emitted photon is given by the Rydberg formula:

$$\dfrac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\dfrac{1}{1^2} - \dfrac{1}{n^2}\right)$$

where $$R$$ is the Rydberg constant and $$\lambda$$ is the wavelength of the emitted photon.

Expanding:

$$\dfrac{1}{\lambda} = R - \dfrac{R}{n^2}$$

Isolating the term with $$n$$:

$$\dfrac{R}{n^2} = R - \dfrac{1}{\lambda}$$

Taking $$\lambda$$ as the common denominator on the right side:

$$\dfrac{R}{n^2} = \dfrac{\lambda R - 1}{\lambda}$$

Solving for $$n^2$$:

$$n^2 = \dfrac{R \cdot \lambda}{\lambda R - 1}$$

Taking the square root:

$$n = \sqrt{\dfrac{\lambda R}{\lambda R - 1}}$$

Therefore, the correct answer is Option B.

We need to track the mass number (A) and atomic number (Z) through a series of nuclear decays. For nucleus D, A = 182 and Z = 74.

In alpha decay (D → D₁), mass number decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases by 2.

$$D_1: A = 182 - 4 = 178, \quad Z = 74 - 2 = 72$$

In beta (β⁻) decay (D₁ → D₂), mass number stays the same and atomic number increases by 1.

$$D_2: A = 178, \quad Z = 72 + 1 = 73$$

Another alpha decay (D₂ → D₃) gives:

$$D_3: A = 178 - 4 = 174, \quad Z = 73 - 2 = 71$$

In gamma decay (D₃ → D₄), neither mass number nor atomic number changes (only energy is released).

$$D_4: A = 174, \quad Z = 71$$

The mass number and atomic number of D₄ are 174 and 71 respectively. The answer is Option A: 174 and 71.

We are given a nucleus $$A$$ with mass number $$220$$ and binding energy per nucleon $$5.6$$ MeV. It splits into fragments $$B$$ (mass number $$105$$) and $$C$$ (mass number $$115$$), each with binding energy per nucleon $$6.4$$ MeV.

Formula: The energy released in fission is the difference between the total binding energy of the products and the total binding energy of the parent nucleus:

$$Q = \text{BE}_{\text{products}} - \text{BE}_{\text{parent}}$$

Calculate the total binding energy of the parent nucleus $$A$$:: $$\text{BE}_A = 220 \times 5.6 = 1232 \text{ MeV}$$

Calculate the total binding energy of fragment $$B$$:: $$\text{BE}_B = 105 \times 6.4 = 672 \text{ MeV}$$

Calculate the total binding energy of fragment $$C$$:: $$\text{BE}_C = 115 \times 6.4 = 736 \text{ MeV}$$

Calculate the total binding energy of products:: $$\text{BE}_{\text{products}} = 672 + 736 = 1408 \text{ MeV}$$

Calculate the energy released:: $$Q = 1408 - 1232 = 176 \text{ MeV}$$

The correct answer is Option D: 176 MeV.

We need to find the momentum of an electron revolving in the $$n^{th}$$ orbit.

Bohr’s quantization condition states that the angular momentum of an electron in the $$n^{th}$$ orbit is quantized:

$$L = mvr = \frac{nh}{2\pi}$$

Since the linear momentum is $$p = mv$$, substituting into the angular momentum relation $$mvr = \frac{nh}{2\pi}$$ yields

$$p \cdot r = \frac{nh}{2\pi}$$

and hence

$$p = \frac{nh}{2\pi r}$$

Hence, the correct answer is Option A.

The parent nucleus is $$^{230}_{90}\text{Th}$$ and the daughter nucleus is $$^{214}_{84}\text{Po}$$.

Let the number of $$\alpha$$ particles emitted be $$n_\alpha$$ and the number of $$\beta^-$$ particles emitted be $$n_\beta$$.

Mass-number (A) balance
Each $$\alpha$$ decay reduces the mass number by $$4$$, while $$\beta^-$$ decay does not change it.
Initial mass number $$= 230$$, final mass number $$= 214$$.
Therefore,
$$230 - 4n_\alpha = 214$$
$$\Rightarrow 4n_\alpha = 16$$
$$\Rightarrow n_\alpha = 4$$.

Atomic-number (Z) balance
Each $$\alpha$$ decay decreases the atomic number by $$2$$, while each $$\beta^-$$ decay increases it by $$1$$.
Starting atomic number $$= 90$$, final atomic number $$= 84$$.
Hence,
$$90 - 2n_\alpha + n_\beta = 84$$.
Substituting $$n_\alpha = 4$$:
$$90 - 2(4) + n_\beta = 84$$
$$90 - 8 + n_\beta = 84$$
$$82 + n_\beta = 84$$
$$\Rightarrow n_\beta = 2$$.

Required ratio
$$\frac{n_\alpha}{n_\beta} = \frac{4}{2} = 2$$.

Therefore, the ratio of the number of $$\alpha$$ particles to the number of $$\beta^-$$ particles emitted is 2.

We begin by recalling the energy expressions in Bohr’s model for the $$n$$-th orbit. The kinetic energy is given by:

$$K_n = \frac{13.6}{n^2} \text{ eV}$$

while the potential energy is

$$P_n = -\frac{27.2}{n^2} \text{ eV}$$

and the total energy is

$$E_n = -\frac{13.6}{n^2} \text{ eV}$$

Note that $$K_n$$ is always positive, $$P_n$$ is always negative, and $$E_n = K_n + P_n$$ remains negative.

Since the electron transitions to a higher energy level, $$n$$ increases and consequently $$n^2$$ increases. Substituting this into the kinetic energy expression,

$$K_n = \frac{13.6}{n^2}$$

we see that as $$n$$ increases, the denominator grows and the positive value of $$K_n$$ decreases.

Similarly, for the potential energy

$$P_n = -\frac{27.2}{n^2}$$

the magnitude $$\frac{27.2}{n^2}$$ becomes smaller, so $$P_n$$ becomes less negative and therefore increases (moves closer to zero).

For the total energy

$$E_n = -\frac{13.6}{n^2}$$

the same reduction in magnitude makes $$E_n$$ less negative, meaning that $$E_n$$ also increases (moves closer to zero).

From the above, when the electron moves to a higher level, the kinetic energy decreases, the potential energy increases, and the total energy increases. Therefore, the correct option is Option B.

We know that the radius of a nucleus is given by $$R = R_0 A^{1/3}$$, where $$R_0 \approx 1.2 \times 10^{-15}$$ m is a constant and $$A$$ is the mass number. The volume of the nucleus is then $$V = \frac{4}{3}\pi R^3 = \frac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3 A$$. Since $$\frac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3$$ is a constant, we see that the volume is directly proportional to the mass number $$A$$. Hence, statement (A) is correct and statement (B) is incorrect.

Now, the mass of the nucleus is approximately $$M = A \cdot m_u$$, where $$m_u$$ is the atomic mass unit. The density of the nucleus is $$\rho = \frac{M}{V} = \frac{A \cdot m_u}{\frac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3 A} = \frac{m_u}{\frac{4}{3}\pi R_0^3}$$. We see that the mass number $$A$$ cancels out completely, so the nuclear density is a constant, independent of the mass number. Hence, statement (E) is correct, while statements (C) and (D) are incorrect.

Hence, the correct answer is Option B.

The reaction is a two-body reaction of the form $$a + A \rightarrow b + B$$ where the projectile $$a$$ is the $$\alpha$$-particle, the target $$A$$ is the stationary $$^{16}_7N$$ nucleus and the products are the proton $$b$$ and the $$^{19}_8O$$ nucleus $$B$$.

Step 1 : Calculate the Q-value of the reaction.
Initial rest-mass $$m_i = m_{\alpha} + m_{N} = 4.003\,u + 16.006\,u = 20.009\,u$$
Final rest-mass $$m_f = m_{p} + m_{O} = 1.008\,u + 19.003\,u = 20.011\,u$$
Mass difference $$\Delta m = m_i - m_f = 20.009\,u - 20.011\,u = -0.002\,u$$
Since $$1\,u = 930\;{\rm MeV}\,c^{-2}$$, the Q-value is $$Q = \Delta m\,c^{2} = (-0.002\,u)\times 930\;{\rm MeV} = -1.86\;{\rm MeV}$$ Thus the reaction is endothermic and needs at least $$1.86\;{\rm MeV}$$ of energy just to balance mass.

Step 2 : Threshold energy in the laboratory frame.
Because the target nucleus is at rest, conservation of momentum requires some of the projectile’s kinetic energy to appear as kinetic energy of the products. For a two-body reaction with target at rest, the minimum (threshold) kinetic energy $$T_{\text{th}}$$ of the projectile is

$$T_{\text{th}} = (-Q)\left(1 + \frac{m_a}{m_A}\right) \quad -(1)$$
where $$m_a$$ is the projectile mass and $$m_A$$ the target mass (both in the same units).

Here $$m_a = m_{\alpha} = 4.003\,u,\qquad m_A = m_{N} = 16.006\,u$$
so $$\frac{m_a}{m_A} = \frac{4.003}{16.006} \approx 0.2501$$

Insert the values into $$(1)$$: $$T_{\text{th}} = 1.86\,{\rm MeV}\;\Bigl(1 + 0.2501\Bigr) = 1.86\,{\rm MeV}\times 1.2501 \approx 2.325\;{\rm MeV}$$

Step 3 : Final answer.
The minimum kinetic energy required by the $$\alpha$$-particle is therefore approximately $$2.32\;{\rm MeV}$$.

Answer: 2.32-2.33 MeV

A sample contains $$10^{-2}$$ kg each of substances $$A$$ and $$B$$ with half-lives $$4$$ s and $$8$$ s respectively, and the ratio of their atomic weights is $$1:2$$. We need to find the ratio of the remaining amounts of $$A$$ and $$B$$ after $$16$$ s.

Let the atomic weight of $$A$$ be $$M$$ and that of $$B$$ be $$2M$$. Since the initial mass of each substance is $$10^{-2}$$ kg, or $$10$$ g, the initial number of moles is:

$$n_A^0 = \frac{10}{M}, \quad n_B^0 = \frac{10}{2M} = \frac{5}{M}$$

The radioactive decay law states:

$$N = N_0 \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{t/T_{1/2}}$$

Substituting $$t = 16$$ s shows that $$A$$ undergoes $$\tfrac{16}{4} = 4$$ half-lives, while $$B$$ undergoes $$\tfrac{16}{8} = 2$$ half-lives. This gives the remaining number of moles as:

$$n_A = n_A^0 \times \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^4 = \frac{10}{M} \times \frac{1}{16} = \frac{10}{16M}$$

$$n_B = n_B^0 \times \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^2 = \frac{5}{M} \times \frac{1}{4} = \frac{5}{4M}$$

Converting these amounts back to mass yields:

$$m_A = n_A \times M = \frac{10}{16M} \times M = \frac{10}{16} = \frac{5}{8}$$

$$m_B = n_B \times 2M = \frac{5}{4M} \times 2M = \frac{10}{4} = \frac{5}{2}$$

From the above, the ratio of the remaining masses is

$$\frac{m_A}{m_B} = \frac{5/8}{5/2} = \frac{5}{8} \times \frac{2}{5} = \frac{1}{4} = \frac{25}{100}$$

Since this ratio is expressed as $$\frac{x}{100}$$, we have

$$\frac{x}{100} = \frac{25}{100}$$

$$x = 25$$

The answer is $$25$$.

We need to find the time for a radioactive substance to reduce to 6.25% of its initial value. We recall the radioactive decay formula $$N = N_0 \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{t/T_{1/2}}$$ where $$T_{1/2} = 5$$ years is the half-life. Setting up the equation, $$\frac{N}{N_0} = 6.25\% = \frac{6.25}{100} = \frac{1}{16}$$ gives $$\frac{1}{16} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{x/5}$$.

Noting that $$\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^4 = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{x/5}$$ and since $$\frac{1}{16} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^4$$, we have $$\frac{x}{5} = 4$$ which yields $$x = 20 \text{ years}$$. The answer is 20.

We have two radioactive materials A and B with decay constants $$\lambda_A = 25\lambda$$ and $$\lambda_B = 16\lambda$$ respectively. Initially, both have the same number of nuclei $$N_0$$.

After time $$t$$, the number of nuclei remaining are: $$N_A = N_0 e^{-25\lambda t}, \quad N_B = N_0 e^{-16\lambda t}$$

The ratio is: $$\frac{N_B}{N_A} = \frac{e^{-16\lambda t}}{e^{-25\lambda t}} = e^{(25-16)\lambda t} = e^{9\lambda t}$$

We are told this ratio equals $$e$$ (Euler's number) at time $$t = \frac{1}{a\lambda}$$. So: $$e^{9\lambda \cdot \frac{1}{a\lambda}} = e$$

$$e^{9/a} = e^1$$

Comparing exponents: $$\frac{9}{a} = 1$$, which gives $$a = 9$$.

Hence, the correct answer is 9.

A beam of monochromatic light excites the electron in $$Li^{++}$$ from the first orbit (n=1) to the third orbit (n=3). For a hydrogen-like atom with atomic number Z, the energy levels are: $$E_n = -\frac{13.6 Z^2}{n^2} \text{ eV}$$. For $$Li^{++}$$, Z = 3, so $$E_1 = -\frac{13.6 \times 9}{1} = -122.4 \text{ eV}$$ and $$E_3 = -\frac{13.6 \times 9}{9} = -13.6 \text{ eV}$$. Therefore, the energy required for the transition is $$\Delta E = E_3 - E_1 = -13.6 - (-122.4) = 108.8 \text{ eV}$$.

Using $$E = \frac{hc}{\lambda}$$, the wavelength of the photon is $$\lambda = \frac{hc}{\Delta E} = \frac{1242 \text{ eV} \cdot \text{nm}}{108.8 \text{ eV}}$$, which yields $$\lambda = 11.4 \text{ nm} = 114 \times 10^{-10} \text{ m}$$.

The value of x is 114.

The energy of a photon emitted during transition from level $$n_1$$ to level $$n_2$$ in hydrogen is:

$$E = 13.6\left(\dfrac{1}{n_2^2} - \dfrac{1}{n_1^2}\right) \text{ eV}$$

Case (i): Transition from $$n = 3$$ to $$n = 2$$:

$$E_1 = 13.6\left(\dfrac{1}{4} - \dfrac{1}{9}\right) = 13.6 \times \dfrac{9 - 4}{36} = 13.6 \times \dfrac{5}{36}$$

Case (ii): Transition from $$n = \infty$$ to $$n = 2$$ (highest permitted level):

$$E_2 = 13.6\left(\dfrac{1}{4} - 0\right) = 13.6 \times \dfrac{1}{4} = 13.6 \times \dfrac{9}{36}$$

The ratio of the energies:

$$\dfrac{E_1}{E_2} = \dfrac{13.6 \times \frac{5}{36}}{13.6 \times \frac{9}{36}} = \dfrac{5}{9}$$

The given ratio is $$\dfrac{x}{x + 4}$$. Comparing:

$$\dfrac{x}{x + 4} = \dfrac{5}{9}$$

$$9x = 5(x + 4) = 5x + 20$$

$$4x = 20$$

$$x = 5$$

Therefore, the value of $$x$$ is $$\boxed{5}$$.

We need to find the wavelength difference between the 3rd transition line of the Paschen series and the 2nd transition line of the Balmer series in terms of $$\lambda$$, the wavelength of the first transition line of the Lyman series.

We start by finding the wavelength of the first transition line of the Lyman series ($$n = 2 \to n = 1$$):

$$\dfrac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\dfrac{1}{1^2} - \dfrac{1}{2^2}\right) = R\left(1 - \dfrac{1}{4}\right) = \dfrac{3R}{4}$$

This gives $$\lambda = \dfrac{4}{3R}$$.

Next, for the 3rd transition line of the Paschen series ($$n = 6 \to n = 3$$), we have:

$$\dfrac{1}{\lambda_1} = R\left(\dfrac{1}{3^2} - \dfrac{1}{6^2}\right) = R\left(\dfrac{1}{9} - \dfrac{1}{36}\right) = R\left(\dfrac{4 - 1}{36}\right) = \dfrac{R}{12}$$

Therefore, $$\lambda_1 = \dfrac{12}{R}$$.

Now, considering the 2nd transition line of the Balmer series ($$n = 4 \to n = 2$$):

$$\dfrac{1}{\lambda_2} = R\left(\dfrac{1}{2^2} - \dfrac{1}{4^2}\right) = R\left(\dfrac{1}{4} - \dfrac{1}{16}\right) = R\left(\dfrac{4 - 1}{16}\right) = \dfrac{3R}{16}$$

This gives $$\lambda_2 = \dfrac{16}{3R}$$.

Calculating the difference yields:

$$\lambda_1 - \lambda_2 = \dfrac{12}{R} - \dfrac{16}{3R} = \dfrac{36 - 16}{3R} = \dfrac{20}{3R}$$

Since $$\lambda = \dfrac{4}{3R}$$, it follows that $$\dfrac{1}{R} = \dfrac{3\lambda}{4}$$, and hence:

$$\lambda_1 - \lambda_2 = \dfrac{20}{3R} = \dfrac{20}{3} \times \dfrac{3\lambda}{4} = \dfrac{20\lambda}{4} = 5\lambda$$

Therefore, $$a = \boxed{5}$$.

The value of $$a$$ is 5.

Given the nuclear fusion reaction $$ _1^2X + \, _1^2X \rightarrow \, _2^4Y$$ and the binding energy per nucleon of $$_1^2X = 1.1 \text{ MeV}$$ and of $$_2^4Y = 7.6 \text{ MeV}$$.

Since each $$_1^2X$$ has 2 nucleons, its total binding energy is $$2 \times 1.1 = 2.2 \text{ MeV}$$, so for two such nuclei $$\text{Total BE}_{reactants} = 2 \times 2.2 = 4.4 \text{ MeV}$$.

Meanwhile, $$_2^4Y$$ has 4 nucleons, so its total binding energy is $$\text{Total BE}_{product} = 4 \times 7.6 = 30.4 \text{ MeV}$$.

Using the relation Energy released = Total BE of products - Total BE of reactants gives $$= 30.4 - 4.4 = 26 \text{ MeV}$$.

The energy released in this process is $$\textbf{26}$$ MeV.

We are given that a radioactive source has a half-life of 2 hours 30 minutes (= 2.5 hours) and initially emits radiation that is 64 times the permissible safe level.

We need to find the time after which the radiation level drops to the permissible safe level.

The radiation intensity is proportional to the activity, which decays as:

We need the activity to reduce to $$\frac{1}{64}$$ of the initial value:

Since $$\frac{1}{64} = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^6$$:

Therefore, the minimum time after which it would be safe to work with the source is 15 hours.

The extra effect that distinguishes a proton from a neutron inside a nucleus is the electrostatic (Coulomb) repulsion among protons. All other (strong-interaction) pieces of the binding energy are the same for both nucleons.

1. Coulomb energy of a uniformly charged nucleus
For a uniformly charged sphere of radius $$R$$ containing $$Z$$ protons, the total Coulomb potential energy is

$$U_C \;=\;\frac{3}{5}\,\frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}\, \frac{Z(Z-1)e^{2}}{R}$$

(the factor $$Z(Z-1)$$ counts the number of distinct proton pairs). The nuclear radius follows the empirical relation

$$R \;=\; r_0\,A^{1/3}$$

so

$$U_C \;=\;\frac{3e^{2}}{20\pi\varepsilon_0 r_0}\; Z(Z-1)\;A^{-1/3}$$

Hence the Coulomb contribution is proportional to $$Z(Z-1)$$ and also to $$A^{-1/3}$$.

2. Difference between proton and neutron binding energies
A neutron carries no charge, so its binding energy is unaffected by the Coulomb term. For a proton, the repulsive energy reduces its binding. Therefore

$$E_b^{\,p}-E_b^{\,n}\;=\;-\,k\,Z(Z-1)\,A^{-1/3}$$

where $$k=\dfrac{3e^{2}}{20\pi\varepsilon_0 r_0}$$ is a positive constant. Thus the magnitude of the difference is indeed proportional to $$Z(Z-1)$$ and to $$A^{-1/3}$$, but the sign is negative (a proton is less tightly bound than a neutron).

3. Checking each statement

Therefore the correct options are:
Option A, Option B and Option D.